Ну всё, последний экзамен в той сессии.

1. A phoneme and it’s allophones
The phoneme is a minimal linguistic unit which can’t be divided lineally into smaller units, it’s potentially connected with meaning and is realized in speech in its allophones.
Each language has its own peculiar (свойственную только ей) system of phonemes. And each phoneme exists in its allophones. We can call a phoneme an abstract unit. We can’t pronounce a phoneme. If we pronounce it – it becomes an allophone. There are as many allophones of a certain phoneme as the number of its positions in speech. (Ex. [ι] ) The famous English phonetician Daniel Jones named phonemes together with their allophones a family. (Ex.[w] – 1.[w] (wıt∫), 2.[w ], [kw ], [sw ] F.e: kwik, swim) The allophones are often called the members of the family. Every sound has its own family. The ability of members of one of the same phoneme to exist in different phonetic position is called complementary (взаимодополнительная) distribution. The total sum of set of all the allophones of one of the same phoneme constitutes the full distribution of this phoneme.
There are 44 or 49 phonemes in the English language. The number of phonemes depends (44 or 49): on method of investigation. The relations between a phoneme and its allophones are that of the whole and its parts.
Kinds and types of allophones
There are different kinds of allophones. For native speaker of English a certain set (набор) of allophones is common. They should correspond (соотносить) to the proper (правильным) literary pronunciation (public school pronunciation England or the pronunciation of educated people in southern England). These allophones are called obligatory (обязательными). The destroying or incorrect realization of obligatory allophones is considered(рассматриваться) to be a strong accent (делать акцент). Among obligatory allophones there are different classes. The 1st class – primary or principal (главные) allophones. A principal allophone exists in the position of the least influence of neighbouring (соседствующих) sounds. The second peculiarity (хар.черта) of this allophones is that it is the only realized (реализуют) member of phonemic family. We call it principle because it’s very important for our teaching practice. The 2nd type is called combinatorial (комбинаторные) allophones. These are the allophones which depend upon (от) the neighbouring speech sounds. (Ex. [s w], slip, swim) – is combinatorial allophone. A very good example of combinatorial allophones is system of vowels. (Все гласные в английском языке зависят от соседних согласных) The 3rd class is positional allophones. They appear as a result of the different positions in a word (initial or final). (Ex. [ l ] light and [l ] dark; [ ] and ) F.e. , t ). Sometimes we have progressive influence (препоследний влияет на последний)(Ex. [ tr i]) and regressive influence (последний влияет на предпоследний) (Ex.[ten θ]). Regressive influence is more often, because of a human nature. Very often various manifestations (проявления) of a phoneme can be the result of individual peculiarities (хар.черт) of speakers. Every person possesses (обладает) his/her own timbre and other acoustic characteristics.
The 4th kind of individual realizations is the so-called a defective speech, which is the result of an incorrect speech bringing-up. The third case of the specific realization of the phoneme is “free variation”: it means that a phoneme has differentiate (различается) being in one of the same position of the word.
The 5th kind of phonetic realization is called a facultative (случайный) variant of the phoneme. It’s an additional (дoполнительная) phoneme, which is usually not registered in the phonemic system of the language.
The 6th kind is called an unstable (неустойчивая) phonetic realization.F.e.: шкап/шкаф, калоши/галоши.
Translate /s./z/
Poor uэ/o


2.The establishing the phonemic function structure of a Language
The first step of this establishing (создание) is the division (деление) of speech flow (поток речи) into separate linguistic units. Principles and methods of this establishing depend upon methodological analysis of different schools of phonology.
The 1st question rises: what kind of material is preferable (предпочтительнее) for this analysis? Besides literary speech pronunciation or normative speech there are many dialects (regional, social, professional dialects).
Which material is preferable? Literary, normative pronunciation is preferable. (In English – pronunciation of educated people from southern England.)
Where we should take words of limited usage? We should take it from geographical names, the names of the letters (буквы), some borrowed (заимствованные) words.
Total majority of the linguists think that all these words can be used for analysis if they are realized or pronounced according to the rules of the normative standard pronunciation or this language. (Ex. 1. [г’отэ] – Гёте (очень редко г – мягкое), [гот] – разные фонемы; 2. [ мол], [ мол ] – эти слова произносятся не по правилам) In such cases the deceive (решающий) factor in choosing the material for establishing is the factor of native speaker’s attitude towards these words.
The 2nd question is Which type of pronouncing (тип произнесения) the words can be taken for this analysis. According to Sherba.
(Щерба ввёл термин «тип произнесения»).
Ex. us: [ s] – strong form (полная форма) по Л. В. Щерба
[ ə s] – weak form (неполная форма)
We don’t mean the styles of pronunciation (Ex. public, official, unofficial, lecture etc.).
There are 2 types of pronouncing the words 1) the full type, when a phonemic structure of a word used in full (Ex. [тысяча], [тыща] Речь безграмотного человека – реальный фонет. состав). 2) the non-full type of pronouncing the words, when realization of some phonemes is weakened or reduced or fall out (Ex. [saunz] – weak form; [saund z] - strong
[məusli] – weak form; [m əustli] – strong)
For our phonemic analysis we should take only full type of pronouncing the words for establishing. But we should never exaggerates (преувеличивать) the pronunciation of words. (Ex. Говорим [малако] – а пишем молоко) We have come to the procedure (процедуру) itself. You should find 2 speech sounds. If 2 sounds occur (встречаются) in one and the same phonetic contexts, these speech sounds can be surely called phonemes.
Quasy-homonyms (квазиомонимы, т.е. слова практически одинаковые) or minimal pears are very usefull for this procedures.
[ мол], [ мол ] – квазиомонимы.
Quasy-homonyms are rather rare in some languages. Phonetic context is the concrete surrounding (окружение) of speech sound. It is not necessary to find quasy-homonyms to prove that two sounds are phonems. It is necessary to find these sounds in similar contexts.
Ex. [ ] – [p t]-часть and – [p t]-горшок (Значение определяется контекстом / equal phonetics)


3. Phonological problems of the accented vowel structure of English.
The scientists recognize from 6 to 20 vowels in English. The reason of this diversity lies in various interpretations of phonological principles.
That is in the principles of phonological analyses of different schools of phonology (Moscow, Leningrad/saint-petersburg, Prague, Copenhagen, British, American school of descriptivism).
The variation is broad.
The main reasons of this variety:
-the discrepancy (различие) in transcription
-the discrepancy in methods of phonological analysis.
Russian linguists base their phonological analysis on two main principles:
1) The Independent positional condition of a speech sound.
2) It’s connection with the meaning.
It’s very easy to establish (устанавливать) the system of English vowels. We can find the same phonetic context for them and see weather the meaning of words changes.
/pıt-pet-pΛt-p ᴐ t-pæt-pυt- p t
Quasihomonymes are very useful from the point of view of comparison.
You know that historically short vowels, we call them lax vowels, can be found in only closed syllables.
Lax υ is never found in initial position in the word.
Some linguists deprived this phoneme of it’s phonemic status. Not all the phonemes can occur in all existing positions ( initial, final, middle).
The phonemic status of the phoneme is not defined through the quantity of it’s positions.
The main thing is that it changes the meaning of a word or makes the word unrecognizable being in a certain phonemic position.
υ is the phoneme of restrictive distribution (огранич.)
Now in modern English we can find υ in initial position
υmlaut, υr υgwai
Historically long (tense) vowels in accented positions.
The method of phonological analysis remains the same. (Quasihomonymes finding one and the same phonetic context).

Very good illustrative material is presented by vowel graduation (vowel interchange).
/spik - spəυk - spəυkən /
The linguists count 5 tense accented vowels in English
Quasyhonomens/bin-b3n-bun-bοn-bάn/
They exist in an open syllable.
Pea-/pi/
Par- /pά/
Paw- /p ᴐ /
Pooh- /pu/
Purr -/p3/
Примеры: shore, knee, fur, sea, car
Daniel Jones suggested taking into consideration only the quantity of a vowel. he introduced the term chroneme (хронема – временная). A unit with the help of which he pointed to the fact that the quantity of a vowel is relative. (относит.)
Alfred Gimson carried out a lot of experiments and proved that tense vowels can be 3 or even 5 shorter than lax vowels in certain positions.he proved, that the main difference lies in the quantity of vowel.
The English accented vowel system numbers 11 phonemes: 5 tense and 6 lax.

4. The English system of consonants
The procedure of establishing the consonant system of English remains the same. It is extremely easy to establish this system of consonants with the help of the principle which is called residual (остаточный).
We subtract one of the consonants as a remainder after the appliance of the method of vowel interchange/gradation.
Vowel gradation/interchange:
[sᴵᵑ - sᵊᵉᵑ - sᴧᵑ]
p b t d k g –чистые смычные
m n ᵑ -носовые сонорные
tʃ dʒ грязные смычные -африкаты
f v ɵ ɚ s z ʃ ʒ h -щелевые
w r l j –ртовые сонорные
there is no need to prove the phonemic status of all the English consonants.
The main problems are connected with affricates.
Africates are characterized by a very complex articulatory mechanism. Some teachers say, that they have occlusive constrictive ending. The main thing is that both manners (elements) are realized with one muscular effort.
If we judge them only by their acoustic effect we’ll have more than 6 africates in English.
/ʧ/ - /ʤ/
/tj/ - /dj/
/Tr/ - /dr/
/ts/ - /dz/
Dress press
|t|+|r| [bi:t /rut] [heit /rid]
|d|+|r| [bed /rum]
Kæt /s
Want /s
We’ll analyze whether they are phonological units in the africates /tr/ and /dr/ and try to prove their phonemic status we’ll see that. They are africates only on the acoustic level. But on the phonological level they represent the biphonemic.
We can never find any kind of boundary between the elements of these affricates /ʧ/ - /ʤ/. We can never find the combinations t+ ʃ and d+ ʒ inside the words.
Daniel Jones was the first who suggested considering /ts/ and /dz/ as monophonemic, because words in some borrowed words they sound like affricates mainly these words are 3:
Tsetsiflai
switsilənd
ʤigitai
But native speakers of English do not accept this pronunciation as their own native corresponding to their literary norm. we can’t consider this pronunciation as corresponding to the monophonemic character of these phonemes.
If we ask an English person to read the phrase “о цыпленке” or “о цапле” the person will pronounce [ᴐ tsipliankᵊ]
|h| and |ᵑ|
Both are the phonemes of restrictive distribution.
|ᵑ|never exists in the initial position of the word. H-never exists in final.
Question –this allophones of one phoneme.
s of different phonemes. We know that two sounds being in the relation of complementary distribution can be considered to be the allophones of one and the same phoneme if they are able to interchange within one and the same morpheme.
Rait лprait
|h| and |ᵑ| never interchange within one and the same morpheme.


5. Phonological problems of unaccented English vowel structure.
1.What kind of phonemes exist in an unstressed position?
2.How many of them exist there in this position?
Some linguists restrict the number of unaccented vowels in English to 2 phonemes only.
I ə
Sıtı
In fluent speech other vowels are contracted to / ə/.
All of them found in unaccented position
nᴐvidзən
daigrəem
There are 2 questions which are to answer. Some linguists say that unstressed phoneme is only one, it’s /ə/.
Ex.: dialogue /daıələg/
There is a certain group of scientists for whom /ə/ is an allophone of /ı/. But it is a nonsence.
we have to find them in one and the same phonetic context. If there’s only one couple of words, which are opposed by these vowels, we then prove that they are phonemes
sıtı sitə
amı amə
piti pitə
ə-is a phoneme it exist in one and the same phonetic context with some other vowels.
/ə/ is a phoneme of restricted distribution.
It means that is doesn’t exist in all three positions of a word It is used only in unaccented position. There are many phonems of restrictive distribution. it occurs only in unaccented positions in the word.
It’s not necessary to find quasyhomonymes in order to prove the phonemic status of ə, it’s enough to find the same phonetic context
/kə lmən/ угольщик
/pə stmən/ почтальон
/f wəd/ вперед
/f wзd/ предисловие
The quantity of accented vowel in English is not less than in the accented vowel system +one ə.


6. The division of speech flow into separate linguistic units
One of the main questions are:
-what is the smallest unit of linguistic analysis
-what are the criteria of speech division into separate linguistic units
Speech flow can be divided into smaller or larger units (sentences, words, morphemes, phonemes).
The criteria of speech division:
1. The possibility of a speech sound to be the material form of a meaningfull unit. It’s the potential connection of the meaning.
I ear air
Are
2. the presence of a morphemic boundary between two speech units
write/r
cat/s
bed/s
3. semasiolological interchange (vowel gradation)
swim-swam-swum
grammatical forms
4. syllabic boundary
мач-та
ма-чта
There are differences between of 2 kinds:
-phonemic ones
-allophonic ones
Phonemic differences from the acoustic point of view are realized by native speaker, because of their close connection with the meaning
Bol-bel-bul
Allophonic differences are not realized by a native speaker and they occur due to a certain position of a sound in speech flow.
Bel-bet-bed
Don’t connect with the meaning


7. The phonemic status of triphthongs
There are 5 triphthongs in English. On the level of phonetics or on the acoustic level they consist of 3 elements.
aiə, a ə, eiə, ə ə, aiə
To define the phonological status of a unit we are to consider the following factors:
The unisyllabic character of some triphthongs.
a ə f aiə t a ə pr eiə sikw aiə oolite -/ ə əlait
A triphthong is material form of a meaningful unit.
There’s a tendency to contract the triphthongs into diphthongs, then into monophthongs
aiə - aə -a
In these cases we deal with the triphthongs which are monophonemic.
But if we have the morphemic junction between the elements of a triphthong, its nature is be-phonemic (diphthong + ə)
h ai /ə sl ə /ə pr ei /ə
the situation with English triphthongs is of double nature (dubious)


8.The phonemic status of diphthongs.
According to the stability of articulation all vowels are divided into monophthongs, diphthongs, triphthongs. Monophthongs are pronounced with more or less stable lips, tongue and mouth walls positions.
The tongue and the lips noticebly (значительно) change their position during the pronunciation of a diphthongs or triphthongs. The main difficulty of phonological theory deals with different interpretations of diphthong elements.
The representatives of American descriptivism considered each diphthong as consisting of two elements-phonological units. (aı, eı, ə: ə).
All the diphthongs in English are falling. (нисходящие, ядро всегда длиннее чем второй элемент)
Russian linguists and linguists of other schools treat the elements of a diththongs as 2 physical parts of one of one and the same phonological unit.
The method of phonological analyses remains the same: finding diththongs and triphthongs in one and the same phonetic context.
Mait mit
There are 8 or 9 diphthongs, one of them disappearing or dying.
To prove the monophonetic character of English diphthongs we should apply some linguistic criteria:
1) The possibility of a diphthong to be the material aspect of a word. (aı – матер.оболочка слова «я» и глаз)
2) The absence of morphemic boundary between the nuclear and the glide (aζı)
/maıt/, /laı/, /keıs/. – отсутствие границы – 1 слог, нет морфемного шва.
haiə pleiə
3) The absence of a syllabic boundary between the elements of diththongs .
chaos / keı ζəs/
poet /pə υζit
priority / praı ζ rity/
4) Subsidiary criteria- a psychological factor. A diphthong is a single unit in the consciousness (сознании) of any native speaker of English. If you suggest them reading a word from back to front they will read first the nuclear, then the glide./ pleı – eılp/, /taı – aı/t.
There are some problems connected with some diphthongs.
1. 3ə
Some of them linguists consider it to be a be-phonemic unit because historically the elements of this diphthongs represented to different phonemes.
But this is a wrong reason to consider a phoneme from the point of view of diachrony. We are to analyze from the point of view of contemporary English.
f3əri feri
m3əri meri
2.i ə
In most cases it’s a monophoneme in accented positions.
t i ə n i ə t i ə
but there are cases when being in unaccented position, it splits into 2 independent units due to the interchanges of the second element of a diphthongs.
k ᴐ d i əl k ᴐ d i əeliti
r i əl riəeliti
3.ᴐə there is a tendency to change it into ᴐ
But we can’t excluded it out of the system because some educated people go on using it for distinguishing the meaning of words
Door d ᴐə дверь
Daw d ᴐ галка
Core k ᴐə сердцевина
Caw k ᴐ каркать


9.Phonemic System. Phonological Oppositions
Phonemic system in language is not set of isolated units. Phonemes have relations between each other. Relations of the phonemic system found:
-allophones of phoneme can vary, but relations between phonemes are kept constant.
The theory of phonological system –main idea in Trubetskoi works.
Phonetic relations between phonemes can characterize:
-by relations between the members of one and the same opposition
According to this point we can distinguish single and multiple oppositions. Single opposition, when members of this opposition are differ by one feature,
m-b s-z t-d
Multiple is differ more than one feature.
b-z
-by relations between one and another oppositions
According to this point oppositions can divided to typical and isolated. Typical opposition –distinctive features characterizing one opposition define also other oppositions in same language.
Isolated oppositions have no analogies in the same language. (don’t correlate with other opposition).
j-h
Bondarko distinguish next types of oppositions.
-privative. One phoneme has distinctive feature, another has no this feature.
b-p s-z
-gradual opposition. Phonemes are differ with different degree of expressiveness of features.
I: -I – ə - əe
-egipolent –features are equal
l-m
-isolated –in the language there aren’t similar


10.Phonemic functions. Their hierarchy
Each language has its own peculiar (свойственную только ей) system of phonemes. And each phoneme exists (сущ-ет, находиться) in its allophones.
The phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit (ед-ца), которая realized in speech in the form of speech sounds opposable [ə pəzəbəl] (может быть противопоставлена) to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words.
Speaking of it’s functions we are (должны) to consider two aspects of one and the same phenomenon. The person who speaks and the person, who perceives the speech. From the point of view of speaking the function of the phoneme can be defined as the constitutive one. It comes from Latin word “constituto” which means составляю, строю. The phoneme is material, real and objective. That means it is realized in speech in the form of speech sounds, its allophones. The phonemes constitute the material form of morphemes, so this function may be called constitutive function.
From the point of view of the listener the function of a phoneme can be called recognizable. Due (что касается) to the recognition (опознования) of meaningful (многозначительных) units by their phonemic structure the peculiarity (хар.черта) of the phonemic structure of a word is used for distinguishing meaningful units (Ex. [pit] - [pet] - [pat]).
The 3rd function of phoneme is the distinctive (отличительная). So we see that the distinctive function of the phoneme is the consequence (следствие) or the result of two previous functions (constitutive and recognizable).
Sometimes a phoneme performs one more function – a delimiting (разграничительная) one. It takes place only in those languages where there are phonemes. F.e. ŋ is situated only in final position: t ŋ., k ŋ (зубрить).


11.The articulatory classification of English Vowels
Russian phoneticians suggest a classification of vowels according to the following principles: 1) stability of articulation; 2) tongue position; 3) lip position; 4) character of the vowel end; 5) length; 6) tenseness.
1. Stability of articulation. This principle is not singled out by British and American phoneticians. Thus, P. Roach writes: "British English (BBC accent) is generally described as having short vowels, long vowels and diphthongs". According to Russian scholars vowels are subdivided into:
a) monophthongs (the tongue position is stable);
b) diphthongs (it changes, that is the tongue moves from one position to another);
c) diphthongoids (an intermediate case, when the change in the position is fairly weak).
Diphthongs are defined differently by different authors. A.C. Gimson, for example, distinguishes 20 vocalic phonemes which are made of vowels and vowel
glides. D. Jones defines diphthongs as unisyllabic gliding sounds in the articulation of which the organs of speech start from one position and then elide to another
position. There are two vowels in English [i:, u:] that may have a diphthongal glide where they have full length (be, do), and the tendency for diphthongization is becoming gradually stronger.
2. The position of the tongue. According to the horizontal movement Russian phoneticians distinguish five classes:
1) front;
2) front-retracted;
3) central;
4) back;
5) back-advanced.
British phoneticians do not single out the classes of front-retracted and back-advanced vowels. So both [i:] and [i] are classed as front, and both [u:] and [u] are classed as back.
The way British and Russian phoneticians approach the vertical movement of the tongue is also slightly different. British scholars distinguish three classes of vowels:
o high (or close),
o mid (or half-open) and
o low (or open) vowels.
Russian phoneticians made the classification more detailed distinguishing two subclasses in each class, i.e. broad and narrow variations of the three vertical positions. Consequently, six groups of vowels are distinguished.
3. Another feature of English vowels is lip position. Traditionally three lip
positions are distinguished, that is
 spread,
 neutral,
 rounded.
Lip rounding takes place rather due to physiological reasons than to any other. Any back vowel in English is produced with rounded lips, the degree of rounding is different and depends on the height of the raised part of the tongue; the higher it is raised the more rounded the lips are.
4. Character of the vowel end. This quality depends on the kind of the articulatory transition from a vowel to a consonant. This transition (VC) is very closed in English unlike Russian. As a result all English short vowels are checked when stressed. The degree of checkness may vary and depends on the following consonants (+ voiceless - voiced - sonorant -).
5. We should point out that vowel length or quantity has for a long time been the point of disagreement among phoneticians. It is a common knowledge that a vowel like any sound has physical duration. When sounds are used in connected speech they cannot help being influenced by one another. Duration of a
vowel depends on the following factors:
1) its own length;
2) the accent of the syllable in which it occurs;
3) phonetic context;
4) the position in a rhythmic structure;
5) the position in a tone group;
6) the position in an utterance;
7) the tempo of the whole utterance;
8) the type of pronunciation.
The problem the analysts are concerned with is whether variations in quantity are meaningful (relevant). Such contrasts are investigated in phonology.
There is one more articulatory characteristic that needs our attention, namely tenseness. It characterizes the state of the organs of speech at the moment of vowel production. Special instrumental analysis shows that historically long vowels are tense while historically short are lax.


13. Phonemic reality, its independence from morpheme.
The phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit realized in speech in the form of speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words.
Theese are the defenitions of the phoneme of different linguists:
L.V.Shcherba: the phoneme may be viewed as a functional, material and abstract unit.
V.A.Vassilyev: The phoneme is a smallest unit capable of distinguishing one word from another word, one grammatical form of word from another
Jacobson: phoneme is a minimal sound by which meaning may be understood
Let us consider the phoneme from the point of view of its aspects.
Firstly, the phoneme is a functional unit. In phonetics function is usually understood as a role of the various units of the phonetic system in distinguishing one morpheme from another, one word from another or one utterance from another. The opposition of phonemes in the same phonetic environment differentiates the meaning of morphemes and words: e.g. bath-path, light-like. Sometimes the opposition of phonemes serves to distinguish the meaning of the whole phrases: He was heard badly - He was hurt badly. Thus we may say that the phoneme can fulfill the distinctive function.
Secondly, the phoneme is material, real and objective. That means it is realized in speech in the form of speech sounds, its allophones. The phonemes constitute the material form of morphemes, so this function may be called constitutive function.
Thirdly, the phoneme performs the recognitive function, because the use of the right allophones and other phonetic units facilitates normal recognition. We may add that the phoneme is a material and objective unit as well as an abstract and generalized one at the same time.
The psychological reality of phonemes was demonstrated by Edward Sapir. He demonstrated that the sounds of language are not merely physical but also mental or psychological phenomena, in that for all languages any sound is part of a system of discrete contrasts that are altered and combined in ways determined by shared linguistic conventions rather than physical necessity.
Speaking about a phoneme reality, it is necessary to mean: first that it really exists and language as certain special language unit distinct from others; secondly that a phoneme, being unit of the sound party of language, possesses through sounds of speech expressing it defined, though also very difficult phonetic characteristics
Reality of phoneme expresses in:
1) speech of illiterate people (лублу, трёс-тряс);
2) abbreviation (.ЦИК, ГОЭЛРО, ГУМ, загс и др. слова, материалом образования которых служат непосредственно фонемы русскогояз.);
3) mistakes in alternation (печёшь-пекёшь);
4) holdings (заимствования: респект, дежавю)
Даже ребенку достаточно показать, что нап-р согл. Ш обозначается буквой ш, чтобы он научился отображать этот согласный на письме, в каком бы слове он ни встретился. Если бы звуки речи, фонемы, не были сами по себе фактами языка, то невозможен был бы звуковой метод обучения письму, пришлось бы учить писать целыми словами.


14. The distinctive features of a phoneme.
Let us consider the English phoneme [d]. It is occlusive, forelingual, apical, alveolar, lenis consonant. This is how it sounds in isolation or in such words as door, darn, down, etc, when it retains its typical articulatory characteristics. In this case the consonant [d] is called principal allophone. The allophones which do not undergo any distinguishable changes in speech are called principal.
Allophones that occur under influence of the neighboring sounds in different phonetic situations are called subsidiary, e.g.:
a. deal, did - it is slightly palatalized before front vowels
b. bad pain, bedtime - it is pronounced without any plosion
с. sudden, admit - it is pronounced with nasal plosion before [n], [m]
d. dry - it becomes post-alveolar followed by [r].
If we consider the production of the allophones of the phoneme above we will find out that they possess three articulatory features in common - all of them are forelingual lenis stops. Consequently, though allophones of the same phoneme possess similar articulatory features they may frequently show considerable phonetic differences.
Native speakers do not observe the difference between the allophones of the same phoneme. At the same time they realize that allophones of each phoneme possess a bundle of distinctive features that makes this phoneme functionally different from all other phonemes of the language. This functionally relevant bundle is called the invariant of the phoneme. All the allophones of the phoneme [d] instance, are occlusive, forelingual, lenis. If occlusive articulation is changed for constrictive one [d] will be replaced by [z]: e. g. breed - breeze, deal — zeal, the articulatory features which form the invariant of the phoneme are called distinctive or relevant.
To extract relevant features of the phoneme we have to oppose it to some other phoneme in the phonetic context.
If the opposed sounds differ in one articulatory feature and this difference brings about changes in the meaning this feature is called relevant: for example, port — court, [p] and [k] are consonants, occlusive, fortis; the only difference being that [p] is labial and [t] is lingual.
The articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning are called non-distinctive, irrelevant or redundant. For example, it is impossible to oppose an aspirated [ph] to a non-aspirated one in the same phonetic context to distinguish meaning.
We know that anyone who studies a foreign language makes mistakes in the articulation of sounds. L.V. Shcherba classifies the pronunciation errors as phonological and phonetic. If an allophone is replaced by an allophone of a different phoneme the mistake is called phonological. If an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by another allophone of the same phoneme the mistake is called phonetic.


15.Intonation; its components and functions
Every language has its own intonation, or speech melody. Intonation helps you to recognize the language that you hear in the same way as the melody of a song helps you to recognize the song that you hear. If you change the melody of a song, your listener will have a hard time recognizing and understanding the song you are singing. The same about intonation: if you speak English with Russian intonation, your listener will have a problem understanding what you are saying.
English intonation is a pretty complicated and varied phenomenon. There are dialectal and regional differences in intonation, for example, there is a noticeable difference between British and American intonation.
In general, linguists distinguish several main types of English intonation, where falling intonation and rising intonation are the two basic types.
Intonation is based on several key components, such as pitch, sentence stress and rhythm.
Pitch (высота тона) is the degree of height of our voice in speech. Normal speaking pitch is at midlevel. Intonation is formed by certain pitch changes, characteristic of a given language, for example, falling intonation is formed by pitch changes from high to low, and rising intonation is formed by pitch changes from low to high.
Sentence stress (ударение) makes the utterance understandable to the listener by making the important words in the sentence stressed, clear and higher in pitch and by shortening and obscuring the unstressed words.
Sentence stress provides rhythm in connected speech.
Intonation performs several important functions in English. The first function is uniting separate words into sentences in oral speech. The second function of intonation is distinguishing between types of sentences: statements, questions, commands, requests, exclamations, etc. Also, intonation allows us to express emotions: finality, confidence, interest, surprise, doubt, joy, pain, irony, etc.
D. Crystal distinguishes the following functions of intonation.
• Emotional function's most obvious role is to express attitudinal meaning -sarcasm, surprise, reserve, impatience, delight, shock, anger, interest, and thousands of other semantic nuances.
• Grammatical function helps to identify grammatical structure in speech, performing a role similar to punctuation. Units such as clause and sentence often depend on intonation for their spoken identity, and several specific contrasts, such as question/statement, make systematic use of it.
• Informational function helps draw attention to what meaning is given and what is new in an utterance. The word carrying the most prominent tone in a contour signals the part of an utterance that the speaker is treating as new information.
• Textual function helps larger units of meaning than the sentence to contrast and cohere. In radio news-reading, paragraphs of information can be shaped through the use of pitch. In sports commentary, changes in prosody reflect the progress of the action.
• Psychological function helps us to organize speech into units that are easier to perceive and memorize. Most people would find a sequence of numbers, for example, difficult to recall. The task is made easier by using intonation to chunk the sequence into two units.
• Indexical function, along with other prosodic features, is an important marker of personal or social identity. Lawyers, preachers, newscasters, sports commentators, army sergeants, and several other occupations are readily identified through their distinctive prosody.

It is very important to understand that intonation patterns themselves have meaning. One and the same word or phrase pronounced with different types of intonation will convey different meanings and will be understood differently, for example: No. - No? - No! Change of standard patterns of intonation also has meaning, for example, rising intonation makes a command more polite, more like a request.


16. Speech producing mechanism
In accordance with their linguistic function the organs of speech may be grouped
as follows:
The respiratory or power mechanism furnishes the flow of air which is the first
requisite for the production of speech sounds. This mechanism is formed by the lungs, the wind-ppipe and the bronchi. The air-stream expelled from the lungs provides the most usual source of energy which is regulated by the power mechanism. Regulating the force of the air-wave the lungs produce variations in the intensity of speech sounds. Syllabic pulses and dynamic stress, both typical of English, are directly related to the behaviour of the muscles which activate his mechanism.
From the lungs through the wind-pipe the air-stream passes to the upper stages of
the vocal tract. First of all it passes to the larynx containing the vocal cords. The function of the vocal cords consists in their role as a vibrator set in motion by the air-stream sent by the lungs. the least two actions of the vocal cords s a vibrator hould be entioned.
The opening between the vocal cords is known as the glottis. When the glottis is tightly closed and the air is sent up below it the so-ccalled glottal stop is produced. It often occurs in English when it reinforces or even replaces [p],[t],or [k] or even when it precedes the energetic articulation of vowel sounds. The most important speech function of the vocal cords is their role in the production of voice. The effect of voice is achieved when the vo cal cords are brought together and vibrate when subjected to the pressure of air passing from the lungs. This vibration is caused by compressed air forcing an opening of the glottis and the fol lowing reduced air-pressure permitting the vocal cords to come together gain.
The height of the speaking voice depends on the frequency of the vibrations. The more frequently the vocal cords vibrate the higher the pitch is.The typical speaking voice of a woman is higher than that of a man because the vocal cords of a woman an vibrate more frequently.We are able to vary the rate of the vibration thus producing modifications of the pitch component of intonation.More than that,we are able to modify the size of the puff of air which escapes at each vibration of the vocal cords, that is we can alter the amplitude of the vibration which causes hanges f the loudness of he ound eard y the listener.
From the larynx the air-stream passes to supraglottal cavi ties, that is to the
pharynx, the mouth and the nasal cavities. The shapes of these cavities modify the note produced n the lar ynx thus iving rise o particular peech sounds.
guage.


17. Articulatory classification of English consonants
Russian phoneticians classify consonants according to the following principles: degree of noise; place of articulation; manner of articulation; position of the soft palate; force of articulation.
(I) According to V.A. Vassilyev primary importance should be given to the type of obstruction and the manner of production noise. On this ground he distinguishes two large classes:
a) occlusive, in the production of which a complete obstruction is formed;
b) constrictive, in the production of which an incomplete obstruction is formed.
Each of two classless is subdivided into noise consonants and sonorants.
Another point of view is shared by a group of Russian phoneticians. They suggest that the first and basic principle of classification should be the degree of noise. Such consideration leads to dividing English consonants into two general kinds:
a) noise consonants;
b) sonorants.
Sonorants are sounds that differ greatly from other consonants. This is due to the fact that in their production the air passage between the two organs of speech is fairly wide, that is much wider than in the production of noise consonants. As a result, the auditory effect is tone, not noise. This peculiarity of articulation makes sonorants sound more like vowels than consonants.
There are no sonorants in the classifications suggested by British and American scholars. Daniel Jones and Henry A. Gleason, for example, give separate groups of nasals [m, n, η], the lateral [1] and semi-vowels, or glides [w, r, j]. Bernard Bloch and George Trager besides nasals and lateral give trilled [r]. According to Russian phoneticians sonorants are considered to be consonants from articulatory, acoustic and phonological point of view.
(II) The place of articulation. This principle of consonant classification is rather universal. The only difference is that V.A. Vassilyev, G.P. Torsuev, O.I. Dikushina, A.C. Gimson give more detailed and precise enumerations of active organs of speech than H.A. Gleason, B. Bloch, G. Trager and others. There is, however, controversy about terming the active organs of speech. Thus, Russian phoneticians divide the tongue into the following parts:
(1) front with the tip,
(2) middle, and
(3) back.
Following L.V. Shcherba's terminology the front part of the tongue is subdivided into:
(a) apical,
(b) dorsal,
(c) cacuminal and
(d) retroflexed according to the position of the tip and the blade of the tongue in relation to the teeth ridge.
А.С. Gimson's terms differ from those used by Russian phoneticians: apical is equivalent to forelingual; frontal is equivalent to mediolingual; dorsum is the whole upper area of the tongue. H.A. Gleason's terms in respect to the bulk of the tongue are: apex - the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the alveoli; front - the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the fore part of the palate; back, or dorsum - the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the velum or the back part of the palate.
(III) A.L. Trakhterov, G.P. Torsyev, V.A. Vassilyev and other Russian scholars consider the principle of classification according to the manner of articulation to be one of the most important and classify consonants very
accurately, logically and thoroughly. They suggest a classification from the point
of view of the closure. It may be: (1) complete closure, then occlusive (stop or
plosive) consonants are produced; (2) incomplete closure, then constrictive
consonants are produced; (3) the combination of the two closures, then occlusive-
constrictive consonants, or affricates, are produced; (4) intermittent closure, then
rolled, or trilled consonants are produced.
A.C. Gimson, H.A. Gleason, D. Jones and other foreign phoneticians include in the manner of noise production groups of lateral, nasals, and semi¬vowels - subgroups of consonants which do not belong to a single class.
Russian phoneticians subdivide consonants into unicentral (pronounced with one focus) and bicentral (pronounced with two foci), according to the number of noise producing centers, or foci.
According to the shape of narrowing constrictive consonants and affricates
are subdivided into sounds with flat narrowing and round narrowing.
(IV) According to the position of the soft palate all consonants are subdivided into oral and nasal. When the soft palate is raised oral consonants are
produced; when the soft palate is lowered nasal consonants are produced.
(V) According to the force of articulation consonants may be fortis and lenis. This characteristic is connected with the work of the vocal cords: voiceless consonants are strong and voiced are weak.