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Вопрос 10. Основные понятия семантической грамматики
Transformational grammar gave way to semantic investigations because it failed to explain numerous gr. Phenomena only through structural methods.
N. Chomski in his last book remarked that one and the same service syntactical structure may be interpreted in several ways on deep semantic level. His ex. “flying planes are dangerous” was the starting point for another idea of creation a universal grammar through semantic values of languages.
The profounder of semantic grammar – Charles Fillmore published 2 articles in 1967-1969, one is called “The case for case” (дело о падеже) and the second - “the case for case reopened”. Fillmore’s idea of a universal grammar is based on the assumption (утверждение) that thinking is universal for all the people irrespective (независимо) of the languages they speak.
Thus we reveal (обнаружим) the semantic categories we’ll find the semantic components of the sentences. Charles Fillmore based his universal grammar on logics or the idea about logical proposition.
Proposition is the contain of the declarative (повествовательный) sentence which is proposed or stated or questioned.
The logical proposition is the structure of thinking which according to Aristotle consists of 3 parts: The subject, The predicate, The copula (связка).
The logical subject is the object of our thinking. The logical predicate stated smth. About the logical subject. The copula either affirms (подтверждать) or negates what is said about the logical subject. The subject of our thinking may be changed in one and the same sentences due to logical stress. (She gave her dog biscuits). Charles Fillmore made the semantic predicate a centre of a notion. (He will go to the cinema. He go – semantic proposition, the doer of the action – semantic subject, go - process).
To show the relationship between the semantic subject and the semantic predicate Fillmore suggested his system of semantic cases. The semantic cases are the roles performed by the participants of the situation. Suggested by Charles Fillmore system of semantic cases was further developed by other scientists. Their system include different number of semantic cases as they are created for different purposes:
Agent is a semantic case that denotes an animate doer of the action expressed by the verb and the action is directed. (I wrote the letter to my friend ¬– I is an agent).
Nominative case(N) – in this case the action isn’t directed (the vas(N) broken).
Object case(O) – an object denotes an inanimate thing which undergoes the action (John(A) broke the vas(O)).
Patient (P) is a leaving being which undergoes the action (He pushed me(P)).
Instrument (I) – means of performing the action and object or thing with the help of which he fulfilled the action (He broke the window with a hammer)
Locative (L) – denotes the place location of the action (Moscow is the capital of Russia).
Factitive(F) – denotes the result of the action (He dug the hole - F)
Temporative (T) – denotes the time (I like spring - T)


Вопрос 11. Глагол: основные черты
As verb is called the part of speech designating action or a condition of a subject or the person. In English language a verb sign in the uncertain form (infinitive) is the particle to.
According to content, verbs can be described as words denoting actions, the term «actions» embracing the meaning of activity (to walk, to speak), process (to sleep, to live), state (to be, to like), relation (to consist) and the like.
According to form, verbs can be described as words that have certain grammatical features that are not shared by other parts of speech. They have the categories of tense, aspect, voice, etc.
According to function, verbs can be defined as words making up the predicate of the sentence.
According to their meaning verbs can be divided into two groups – terminative and durative verbs. Terminative verbs imply a limit beyond which the action cannot continue. (to open, to close). Durative verbs do not imply any such limit, and the action can go on indefinitely (to live, to speak).
According to their relation to the continuous form, verbs fall into dynamic verbs – which admit of the continuous form (We were eating dinner when he called) and stative verbs – which do not admit of the continuous form (I understand what you mean).
Verbs are also classified according to the type of object they take. Verbs that do not require any object are called intransitive (We walked across the fields). Verbs that require some kind of object to complete their meaning are called transitive. (I swear I’m telling the truth).
According to their meaning and function in the sentence verbs are classified into notional (always have a lexical meaning of their own and can have an independent syntactic function in the sentence (During the war he lived in London)) and structural (here belong modal verbs and link-verbs (He was a middle-aged man)).
Verbs divided into finite forms (have the function of the predicate in the sentence) and non-finite forms (the verbals).
The finite forms of the verb have the following grammatical categories:
1) person and number – serve to show the connection between the subject and the predicate of the sentence. We find 3 person (the first, the second, the third) and 2 numbers (the singular, the plural);
2) tense (is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action), aspect (is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is regarded) and phase;
3) voice (is the form of the verb which serves to show whether the subject of the sentence is the agent or the object of the action expressed by the predicate verb (active and passive voice));
4) mood (shows the relation between the action expressed by the predicate verb and reality).


Вопрос 12. Грамматическое значение и грамматическая категория
The word combines in its semantic structure two meanings – lexical and grammatical. Lexical meaning is the individual meaning of the word (e.g. table). Grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass. For example, the class of nouns has the grammatical meaning of thingness. If we take a noun (table) we may say that it possesses its individual lexical meaning (it corresponds to a definite piece of furniture) and the grammatical meaning of thingness (this is the meaning of the whole class). Besides, the noun ‘table’ has the grammatical meaning of a subclass – countableness. Any verb combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of verbiality – the ability to denote actions or states. An adjective combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of the whole class of adjectives – qualitativeness – the ability to denote qualities. Adverbs possess the grammatical meaning of adverbiality – the ability to denote quality of qualities.
There are some classes of words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the grammatical meaning only. This can be explained by the fact that they have no referents in the objective reality. All function words belong to this group – articles, particles, prepositions, etc.
Grammatical meanings are very abstract, very general. Therefore the grammatical form is not confined to an individual word, but unites a whole class of words, so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics.
The grammatical meaning may be explicit and implicit. The implicit grammatical meaning is not expressed formally (e.g. the word table does not contain any hints in its form as to it being inanimate). The explicit grammatical meaning is always marked morphologically – it has its marker. In the word cats the grammatical meaning of plurality is shown in the form of the noun; cat’s – here the grammatical meaning of possessiveness is shown by the form ‘s; is asked – shows the explicit grammatical meaning of passiveness.
The implicit grammatical meaning may be of two types – general and dependent. The general grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole word-class, of a part of speech (e.g. nouns – the general grammatical meaning of thingness). The dependent grammatical meaning is the meaning of a subclass within the same part of speech. For instance, any verb possesses the dependent grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity, terminativeness/non-terminativeness, stativeness/non-stativeness; nouns have the dependent grammatical meaning of contableness/uncountableness and animateness/inanimateness. The most important thing about the dependent grammatical meaning is that it influences the realization of grammatical categories restricting them to a subclass. Thus the dependent grammatical meaning of countableness/uncountableness influences the realization of the grammatical category of number as the number category is realized only within the subclass of countable nouns, the grammatical meaning of animateness/inanimateness influences the realization of the grammatical category of case, teminativeness/non-terminativeness - the category of tense, transitivity/intransitivity – the category of voice.
Grammatical categories are made up by the unity of identical grammatical meanings that have the same form (e.g. singular::plural). Due to dialectal unity of language and thought, grammatical categories correlate, on the one hand, with the conceptual categories and, on the other hand, with the objective reality. It may be shown with the help of a triangle model: Conceptual reality → Objective reality → Lingual reality or Conceptual category → Objective category → Grammatical category.
It follows that we may define grammatical categories as references of the corresponding objective categories. For example, the objective category of time finds its representation in the grammatical category of tense, the objective category of quantity finds its representation in the grammatical category of number. Those grammatical categories that have references in the objective reality are called referential grammatical categories. However, not all of the grammatical categories have references in the objective reality, just a few of them do not correspond to anything in the objective reality. Such categories correlate only with conceptual matters.
They are called significational categories. To this type belong the categories of mood and degree. Speaking about the grammatical category of mood we can say that it has modality as its conceptual correlate. It can be explained by the fact that it does not refer to anything in the objective reality – it expresses the speaker’s attitude to what he says.


Вопрос 13. Глагол: категория вида и залога
Aspect
There’re 2 aspect forms in English. The choice between the forms is determined by the way the action is presented in the context, the following factors being of major importance here:
• Number of enumerated actions. A single action may be described in the context or a chain of successive actions.
• Frequency of the last action. The action may be presented as done once or repeatedly, permanently.
• Presence of an exact indication of time. The time of the action may be exactly indicated or not.
• “Character” of the action. The event may be presented as completed or not completed at the time.
Thus the continuous form will be generally used to denote one action, done once, taking place at a moment exactly indicated in the situation and presented as a continual process.
The non-continuous form will be used to denote a chain of successive actions, a repeated or permanent action, an action the time of which is not exactly indicated or a completed event.
Voice
The form of the verb may show whether the agent expressed by the subject is the doer of the action or the recipient of the action (John broke the vase - the vase was broken). The objective relations between the action and the subject or object of the action find their expression in language as the grammatical category of voice. Therefore, the category of voice reflects the objective relations between the action itself and the subject or object of the action:
The category of voice is realized through the opposition Active voice::Passive voice. The realization of the voice category is restricted because of the implicit grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity. In accordance with this meaning, all English verbs should fall into transitive and intransitive. However, the classification turns out to be more complex and comprises 6 groups:
1. Verbs used only transitively: to mark, to raise;
2. Verbs with the main transitive meaning: to see, to make, to build;
3. Verbs of intransitive meaning and secondary transitive meaning. A lot of intransitive verbs may develop a secondary transitive meaning: They laughed me into agreement; He danced the girl out of the room;
4. Verbs of a double nature, neither of the meanings are the leading one, the verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively: to drive home - to drive a car;
5. Verbs that are never used in the Passive Voice: to seem, to become;
6. Verbs that realize their passive meaning only in special contexts: to live, to sleep, to sit, to walk, to jump.
Some scholars admit the existence of Middle, Reflexive and Reciprocal voices. "Middle Voice" - the verbs primarily transitive may develop an intransitive middle meaning: That adds a lot; The door opened; The book sells easily; The dress washes well. "Reflexive Voice": He dressed; He washed - the subject is both the agent and the recipient of the action at the same time. It is always possible to use a reflexive pronoun in this case: He washed himself. "Reciprocal voice”: They met; They kissed - it is always possible to use a reciprocal pronoun here: They kissed each other.
We cannot, however, speak of different voices, because all these meanings are not expressed morphologically.

Вопрос 14. Теория частей речи
All the words in the vocabulary stock of the language should be organized traditionally. They’re organized into 8 parts of speech. This classification dates back to the ancient times: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
Ilysh adds numerals, statives, modal words and particles.
Хаймович и Роговская add articles and response words.

When we classify parts of speech, we take into consideration different dimension ex:

Syntactic functions:

H.Sweet:
Noun-words: Noun (snow),
Noun-pronouns (I, they);
Noun-numerals (three in three of us),
Noun-verbals: infinitive (go in I wish to go) and gerund (going in I think of going)
Adj.words: Adjective (beautiful);
Adj.-pronoun (my, their);
Adj.- numeral (three in three men)
Adj.-verbals – participles (melted in the snow is melted)
Verb.words. Verb (I run)
Verbals: infinitive, gerund, participles (sometimes author includes verbals here, sometimes – he doesn’t).

morphological characters:
Words fall into declinable and Indeclinable.
Declinable – that is capable of inflection
Indeclinable – that is incapable of inflections


Classification of O.Jespersen. His theory is between syntax & morphology:
Substantives
Adj.
Pronouns (including numerals)
Verbs (including overbids=infinitive, gerund,participles)
Particles (very mixed group: adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections).

He also analyzes classes from the point of view of their functions in the sentence and phrase.

Here we take his theory of 3 ranges. In any composite denomination of a thing or person we always find that there is one word of supreme importance to which the others are joined as subordinated. The chief word is defined (qualified, modified) by another word, which in its turn may be defined (qualified, modified) by a third word, etc. we are to establish different ranks of words according to their mutual relations as defined or defining.

Words can be of:
Primary rang
Secondary rang
Tertiary /'tɜʃərɪ/
ex: furiosly(3) barking(2) dog(1)

Ch. Fries developed the classification on the base of the function (role in the sentence).
He classified words using 3 typical sentences, which he called frames. He established 4 classes and 15 groups of structural words.

Russian linguistic tradition developed classification of the base of meaning, form and function.
(если вдруг как дополнительный вопрос будет перечислить все части речи, которые мы с вами учили в 1 год, то вот они:
1. noun
2. adj.
3. verb
4. adverb
5. pronoun NOTIONAL
6. numerals
7. modal words
8. stative (слова состояния)
9. interjections

10. preposition
11. conjunction FUNCTIONAL
12. article
13. particle


Вопрос 15. Теория частей речи: проблема грамматической омонимии
All the words in the vocabulary stock of the language should be organized to the certain classes according to their meaning, form and functions. All the members of these classes have certain characteristics, which distinguish them from the members of other classes. Each class has a name of its own – noun, adjective, verb etc.
According to their form:
NOUNS have plural inflections -s/-es (trees).
ADJECTIVES have degrees of comparison, which nouns and verbs have not (big-bigger-the biggest).
VERBS have inflections of their own, distinct from those of the other parts of speech (I grow, he grows, has grown).
According to their functions in the sentence:
NOUN is commonly a subject or the object
VERB always states something about a subject-word
ADJs are assumptive (предполагающие) words and so on.
According to their meaning:
NOUNS are substance-words
ADJs and VERBS are attribute-words. ADJs express permanent attribute, while VERBS changing attributes or phenomena.
This connection between the meaning and the function is natural, though not necessary. We can say one and the same, using different grammatical constructions.
White snow
Whiteness of snow
The meaning is the same, and the difference is grammatical, not logical.
Sometimes it is difficult to define a word as a member of certain class because of the grammatical AMBIGUITY. Ambiguity is found when the word or phrase has more than one meaning. Ex.: complement: I like to hear complements. I was complimented with a dress.
The context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it evident which of the meanings is intended.
Ambiguity can arise in different ways.
1) Syntactic ambiguity is a structural homonymy of the syntactic units (sentences and phrases). It arises when the whole phrase can be understood in more than one way. He ate the cookies on the couch, for example, could mean that he ate those cookies which were on the couch or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies.
2) It also arises due to the words, that can belong to more classes, than one: Ex.: Flight: They flight – Verb and Their flight – Noun.
But in each particular application they can only belong to one part of speech. And it is easy to determine which one.
Spoken language can contain many more types of ambiguities. First of all because of the informal usage. This is often the case, for example, with idiomatic expressions whose definitions are rarely or never well-defined
-Then where have you been? It's late.
-Nowhere.
-What?
-Nowhere.
-Don't nowhere me. I know how long it takes to walk home from school. (WOODHILL)
Here the word «nowhere» in the 3rd sentences is a verb, while in the 1st and the 2nd is an adverb.
Secondly, when there is more than one way to compose a set of sounds into words, for example "ice cream" and "I scream". Such ambiguity is generally resolved according to the context.


Вопрос 16. Прагматический синтаксис: основные аспекты
Without taking into consideration any extra linguistic peculiarities of communication. The language is studied according to 3 aspects given long before by academician Sherba. They are: language material, language system and speech.
Pragmatic from Greek “pragma”(act/ action) is applied very widely in sociology, psychology, technology, zoology. It’s becoming a global theory.
As the term “pragmatics” was introduced by famous English linguist Ch. Pierce. As pragmatics studies relationships between the linguistic signs and the speakers. Semantics studies the relationship between the linguistic signs and extra linguistic situations. Syntax studies the relationship of the linguistic studies with each other.
The scientists of pragmatics stress on the fact that linguistic structure can’t exist in vacuum and isolation from the knowledge of the universe and people who communicate in it.
Another words pragmatics may be defined as a dynamic interaction (взаимодействие) of the knowledge of the world on the part of the speaker and semantic syntactic dimensions (измерения) of the language communicatory oriented linguistics.
The focus of attention is on the function side of the language how and why the structures are used in speech. The main aspects of a speech act are: the speaker, the listener, verbal context, non-verbal context and extra linguistic situation.
The main aspect of pragmatics are: the communicative intention, types of speech acts, types of the sentences (according to communicative intention) and types of speech affect.
One of the central notions is an utterance (произнесение) which differs from the sentence. Communicative intention is a purpose of the utterance directed on to solving the speaker’s intentions.


Вопрос 17. Прагматический синтаксис: коммуникативные типы предложений
The regularity of the connection between the communicative intention with the utterances and listener’s reaction device opportunity to single out pragmatical types of sentences:
• Promisives
• Menacives
• Deractives
• Performatives
I’ll come tomorrow
I’ll come tomorrow
I’ll come tomorrow
Not every utterance expresses the communicative expression. J. Ostin the English logician singled out locutionary act (L. a.), illocutionary act (Il. a), perlocutionary act (P. A.). L. a. which sounds in Russian (акт говорения) is uttering of a certain sentence with a certain sense and reference. Il. A. (иллокутивный) is an utterance which has a certain conventional force informing, wondering, warning. P.a. is the result of the realization of the communicative intention.
The 1st act is characterized by the absence of the communicative intention. The 2d is characterized by definite communicative intention. The 3d is the result of realization of communicative intention.


Вопрос 18. Прагматический синтаксис: общественные директивы
Classification of pragmatic types of utterances includes:
constatives / (these statements describe several situation and facts the water boils at 100 degrees ).
Comissives(statements, promises) they can be divided into 2 subclasses 1) promissives – I will help you and 2) menacives – I”ll kill
Expressives (through these such statements the relationship between the communicants are regulated.- I beg your pardon
declaratives ( the speaker adds and finishes the communication - the meeting is finished
Directives (statements demand on the action, orders, requests, advice, invitation): Come to me
Interrogativy (statements contain the request of necessary information: What is the result of meeting?).
Vocative (Viktor Nikolayevich, Mr. Advisor!).
Optative (expression-wishes: Happy new year !, to make communication more effective we should observe the following principles. Clear,-un-ambiguity relevant, brief, tactful and tolerant