Тсс, это к экзамену :)

Вопрос 1. Основные грамматические понятия: слово и его структура в грамматике
The notion of word in grammar, in lexicology is so many-fold that it is difficult to give a precise definition. The term word in grammar is always treated from several positions. These approaches are formal, structural, morphological, syntactical, semantic, pragmatic, nominative and communicative.
Smernitski treats the word as the system of its forms. It’s formal approach. Besides the word is often defined as a minimal potential sentences. The word is also defined as a 3 linguistic form. Its function is absolutely independent. Its function approach. Some linguists call the word the elementary component of the sentence. Its structural approach. Besides word can reflected the extra linguistic meaning. The word given names to the objects and phenomena on extra linguistic reality. The word is also defined as having communication intention in the process of communication. This common function refers two or more sentences. It is pragmatic or communicative approach. Word is an independent linguistic sigh.
A word – is the largest unite of morphology comer nominative unite of the language, which is positional independent use formation of the sentence and is the unite of information in communicative process.
A word has a lexical and grammar meanings. Lexical meaning is an individual meaning of the concrete word. Grammatical is the meaning of the class of parts of speech. Besides the noun has the grammatical meaning of subclass, countability. There are some classes of words that are devoid of any lexical meaning. This can be explained by the fact that they have no reference in reality.
The morpheme is one of the central notions of grammatical theory, without which no serious attempt at grammatical study can be made. The morpheme is elementary meaningful part of the word. It is build up by phonemes so that the shortest morpheme include only one phoneme. The morpheme expresses abstract meaning which are used as constituents for the formation of more concert nominative meanings of words. Bloomfield defines the morpheme as a minimal meaningful unite. There are inflectional or grammatical derivation or lexical morphemes. Derivational morphemes form one word from another. (govern – government). Inflectional morphemes (play – plays – played). An inflectional morpheme as a unite of morphology is an exponent of grammatical meaning.
Two or more morphemes may sound the same but be basically different, that is, they may be homonyms. Thus the -er morpheme indicating the doer of an action as in writer has a homonym — the morpheme -er denoting the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs, as in longer. Which of the two homonymous morphemes is actually there in a given case can of course only be determined by examining the other morphemes in the word. Thus, the morpheme -er in our first example, writer, cannot possibly be the morpheme of the comparative degree, as the morpheme writ- to which it is joined on is not the stem of an adjective or adverb, and so no comparative degree is to be thought of here.
There may be zero morphemes, that is, the absence of a morpheme may indicate a certain meaning. Thus, if we compare the forms book and books, both derived from the stem book-, we may say that while books is characterised by the -s-morpheme as being a plural form, book is characterised by the zero morpheme as being a singular form.

Вопрос 2. Уровневая организация грамматики и ее составляющие
In Russian linguistic school grammar has always been treated as a system of contract forms of the language science: morphemes, words, phrase, sentences and text. It was offered by Langacker in 1965. The form hierarchy /'haɪərɑkɪ/ of into connected element or a ran scale. The position of a unit on this step of the a ran scale depends on its size. The longer is its unit the higher is its position on the scale. The order of grammatical organization of these units that are basic for one grammar study is usually representative in levels. These levels are interrelated we regard them separately only for the sake of convenience of analysis. There is one level that units all of them the semantic level. Every level has its own sematic meaning. Bloomfield defines the morpheme as a minimal meaning unit. This is only one unit which is missing – the phoneme. We do not accept a phoneme on a phonetic level because phoneme are deprived of any semantic meaning. Though they help to differentiate meaning of the words.
текст dictimic (the unit is dictim)
предложение proposemic (the unit is proposeme)
фраза denotimic (denoteme)
слово leximic (word)
морфема morphemic (morpheme)
фонема

Вопрос 3. Донормативный период в истории английской грамматики
Grammar:
1. Pre-scientific (prenormative, normative)
2. Scientific (traditional, modern)
They are does not exist a generally excepted periodization of the history of the English grammar, but it can be divided into 4 periods:
Prenormative
The age of early descriptive grammars of English - the end of the 16th century when the first English grammar “Brief grammar for English ” (1585) belonged to William Bullokar as the first English grammar as a book; a period at the beginning of the 16th century (1527), translated by W.Lily – archbishop. It was the translation of Latin grammar into English. It was a remarkable event, because Lily set up principles of grammar organization, made up terms for Latin terminology: parts of speech, morphology. While translating Latin grammar he noticed the difference between two languages – Latin syntactical and English analytical. Bullokar compiled an analogy with Latin grammar. It had latin patterns. He singled out 5 cases of noun and 9 parts of speech.
He noticed the difference between 2 languages.

Вопрос 4. Нормативный период в истории английской грамматики
Grammar:
1. Pre-scientific (prenormative, normative)
2. Scientific (traditional, modern)
It didn’t give any norms and rules, it didn’t offer any general linguistic principles deception but these grammars gave way to a normative prescriptive grammar which stated stricter norms and rules of what is right and what’s wrong appealing to the laws of reasons and logics. By the end of the 18th century the purely descriptive grammar gave way to a new wind (виток) of grammar - a prescriptive grammar which set a certain standard of correctness.
By the end of the 19th century when the prescriptive grammar had reached its lightest level of development , when traditional system of grammar had been established the classical scientific grammar became possible.


Вопрос 6. Связь грамматики с другими науками
Theoretical grammar is closely connected with the other linguistic sciences: Phonetics, Lexicology, word-building and Stylistics.
The importance of the connection between Phonetics and Grammar stands explained if we remember that the study of phonetics as a separate branch began in XIX century, earlier it was the past of Grammar. Pronunciation and stress participate in signification: discrimination between the words may be based upon the stress. For example, the word ’import is recognized as a noun and distinguished from the verb im’port due to the position of stress. Stress also distinguishes compound from homonymous word-grouds: blackbird – black bird. Pronunciation helps us to distinguish noun compliment /ə/ from the verb compliment /e/. These conditions give a general idea of the possible link between Grammar and Phonetics.
Lexicology and Grammar are connected though the object of their study, with is a word. Even isolated words as presented in a dictionary bear a definite relation to the grammatical system of the language because they belong to some part of speech and conform to some lexico-gammatical characteristics of the word-class to which they belong.
Words seldom occur in isolation. They are arranged in certain patterns showing relation between the things, they stand for. In other words with their lexical meaning they possess some grammatical meaning: head of the committee, to head a committee.
The two kind of meaning are often interdependent. That is to say, certain grammatical functions and meanings are possible only for the words, whose lexical meaning makes them fit for these function. For example, the function of a link-verb with a predicative expressed by an adjective can be taken up only by verbs of motins: come true, fall in love, fall ill, go wrong, turn red.
The relations between word-building, grammar, and lexicology have not yet been made quite clear. By and large three views have been expressed: (1) word-building is part of lexicology, (2) word-building is partly at least a matter of grammar, (3) word-building is a special sphere intermediate between lexicology and grammar.
The grammatical aspect of word-building is, that words belonging to a certain part of speech are (or can be) derived by means of certain morphemes, chiefly suffixes (but in a few cases also prefixes), vowel alternation, and so forth. A few typical examples will be all that is needed.
For NOUN -ness or –er –ity: goodness, scarcity, necessity
For ADJECTIVES –ful,–less,-ous: wistful, harmless, hazardous.
In the sphere of VERBS we may note the suffix -ise (also spelt -ize) crystallise, organise, mobiliseand the like.
Most word-forming morphemes are ambiguous [æm'bɪgjuəs], that is, they do not with certainty point to any definite part of speech but leave some choice which has to be decided by other criteria.
The wideness of the choice varies with different morphemes. Thus, the suffix -ful leaves us only one alternative: the word can either be an adjective, which is the more usual case (useful, careful, truthful, masterful, needful, sinful, etc.), or a noun, which is much rarer (handful, spoonful, mouthful, pocketful, roomful, etc.).
Other suffixes may leave us a choice between three or more possibilities, for instance the suffix -ly leaves open the choice between adjectives, adverbs, nouns, modal words, and particles. We shall give a few examples of each category.
Adjectives in -ly: orderly, friendly, comely, sickly, masterly;
adverbs: kindly, safely, generally, merrily, joyfully;
nouns: daily (a newspaper published every day; a woman coming in as daily help),
modal words: possibly, probably, certainly, presumably, admittedly;
particles: exclusively, merely, solely.
Some neologisms may be constructed without any suffixes and prefixes: compare words nowhere - нигде and nowhere – морочить голову in the dialog below:
Then where have you been? It's late."
"Nowhere."
"What?"
"Nowhere."
"Don't nowhere me. I know how long it takes to walk home from school." (WOODHILL) The grammatical meaning of the verb “nowhere” is clarified from its position between don't and me, in another words – from the context.
These examples show the weakness of dependence between suffixes and the grammatical meaning of the word that is why world-building is considered to be not a part of grammar, but a border-science between lexicology and grammar and connected with them both.

Вопрос 7. Дескриптивный анализ: основные понятия и достижения
New approaches of description of languages appeared in America and Europe. They’re often referred to as structural or descriptive analyses. Though they represent different methods of linguistic investigation. Monapredicif (!!??) 2 member sentences are analyses in terms of subject, predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier. The traditional model of parts of sentences distinguishes between principle and secondary parts of sentences.
Secondary parts of sentences are said to depend on principle parts. It’s very difficult to differentiate secondary parts of the sentence on the basis of the traditional model of parts of the sentence.
Potcheptsov considers that the so called parts of the sentence are singled out on the basis of the sentence. Linguists generally study them irrespective (незав-ый) of the sentence taking on consideration only muchly (??) relations of these or those parts. Another words the study of parts of the sentence is displaced into the sphere of word combination.
Since the modal of parts of the sentence was a number of weak forms. Linguists began to look for a new modal. In 1914 Bloomfield published “Introduction to the study of language” where appeared a new theory of descriptive grammar which put on a firm basis the inductive rather than inductive reproach to language analyses. Bloomfield and his adherents set out to describe language as its exist without being concern with questions of correct and incorrect usage. In doing so they directed their attention to the formal features of language. The shift of American linguists attention from meaning to form at the beginning of the 20th century was quite natural.
Descriptive linguistics developed from the necessity of studying half-known or unknown languages of the Indian tribes. The language of the Indian tribes have a little in common with the Indo-European languages. They’re devoid of morphological forms of separate words. That’s why descriptive linguists couldn’t analyze sentences in traditional terms.
The generally excepted method of descriptive linguistics became that of distribution. The distribution of an element is the total of all environments in which it occurs. The distribution is defined by means of substitution. The distributional method is not a new idea in the history of English grammar. But traditional grammar was guided by this method only in practice.
One of the representatives of structural linguistics is Ch. Fries. He draws a distinction between 2 kinds of meanings: lexical, structural. Structural meanings show grammatical function. They’re fundamental. English sentence is a structural pattern made up of classes or groups of words, which are probably identified by formal markers and by their position in the pattern.

Вопрос 8. Анализ по непосредственно составляющим
The modal of IC (immediate constituencies) represents the sentence not as a linear sequence of words but as hierarchy of 2 parts constructions on a serious of levels.
The warm sun excited a little girl
The IC model helps not only analyze but generate sentences. It has 2 branches forming out from the sentence. The modal of IC has a limited sphere of application. It deals only with isolated sentences.

Вопрос 9. Трансформационная грамматика
Linguists and psychologists have been puzzling over the phenomenon of the young child’s ability to learn his native language at an early age and with no tuition. And some children do more than this. If their homes are bilingual, they learn two languages. And this is done in spite of the tremendous diversity of the sentence structures, in spite of the fact that there seems to be no end to the variety of the constructions. «If there is any explanation at all», writes Paul Roberts, the contemporary American scientist, «it must be that language structure is not really as complicated as it looks at first. There must be some system to it simple enough to be grasped and held by any human mind, however ordinary». The fundamental aim in the linguistic analyses of a language is to find a set of transformational rules by which all the grammatical sentences of the language can be generated.
Modern linguistic scientists and language teachers believe that the system of any language contains a rather small numbers of «kernel» (basic) sentences and other linguistic forms (such as morphemes and phonemes), and all the other linguistic forms, sentences of different structure, are derived or generated from these kernel elements by certain derivation rules which are not very numerous or difficult.
It is the simplicity and regularity of the structure of any language that makes it possible for the child to grasp it and for human communities to speak it.
This understanding of the system of any language, оf its grammar (both terms are used: «the system of a language», «the grammar of a language») is the main assumption of the Transformational grammar. The TG a new linguistic theory, аppeared in the 50-s of the 20 century.
The first propounders of the TG were Zeling S. Harris and Noam Chomsky. Both these grammarians belonged to the Descriptive School of American linguistics; thus we may say that TG was born inside the Descriptive linguistic trend.
An important part of Chomsky contribution to TG was the construction of kernel sentences. «Kernel sentences are basic simple sentences or declarative sentences. They contain two essential parts: a noun phrase and a verb phrase, in that order».
Consider the kernel sentence The man hit the ball. This sentence is generated by the application of the following rules:
1) Sentence →NP+VP
2) NP → T (a determiner)+N
3) T→ the
4) N →man
5) VP →V+NP
6) V →hit
7) NP →T+N
8) T →the
9) N →ball
This sentence is derived by the use of 6 rules (rules 7, 8, 9 are recursive, i.e. they have already been used before). From this sentence, applying transformational rules, we can derive other sentences, such as The ball was hit by the man; Did the man hit the ball?; The man did not hit the ball; It was the man who hit the ball, etc.
The principle transformational rules that can be applied to kernel sentences include:
1) Expansion of the verb phrase and noun phrase, e.g.
John is at home →John must be at home
We like him →we came to like him
John is walking →John is walking in the park
The verb in the ernel sentence can be expanded by using modal and aspective verbs; the noun by restrictors (articles, pronouns)
John is at home→ The John (i.e. our John) is at home
→ Poor John is at home
→ Mary’s John is at home
2) Permutation change of the word-order, e.g.
He is a student. → Is he a student?
3) Introduction of functional words, e.g.
He arrived tonight. →Did he arrive tonight?
4) Use of introducers (there, it), e.g.
A bell rang. →There rang a bell.
5) Deletion of an element, e.g.
Would you like a cup of tea?→ A cup of tea?
6) Use of negation words, e.g.
The evening was warm →The evening was not warm.
7) Passivisation, e.g.
The teacher praised the boy.→ The boy was praised by the teacher.