20 The legislative branch of government.
17-05-2009 22:49
THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH
Established by Article I of the Constitution, the Legislative Branch consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate, which together form the United States Congress. The Constitution grants Congress the sole authority to enact legislation and declare war, the right to confirm or reject many Presidential appointments, and substantial investigative powers.
The House of Representatives is made up of 435 elected members, divided among the 50 states in proportion to their total population. In addition, there are 6 non-voting members, representing the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and five territories of the United States. The presiding officer of the chamber is the Speaker of the House, elected by the Representatives. He or she is third in the line of succession to the Presidency.
Members of the House are elected every two years and must be 25 years of age, a U.S. citizen for at least seven years, and a resident of the state (but not necessarily the district) they represent.
The House has several powers assigned exclusively to it, including the power to initiate revenue bills, impeach federal officials, and elect the President in the case of an electoral college tie.
The Senate is composed of 100 Senators, 2 for each state. Until the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913, Senators were chosen by state legislatures, not by popular vote. Since then, they have been elected to six-year terms by the people of each state. Senator's terms are staggered so that about one-third of the Senate is up for reelection every two years. Senators must be 30 years of age, U.S. citizens for at least nine years, and residents of the state they represent.
The Vice President of the United States serves as President of the Senate and may cast the decisive vote in the event of a tie in the Senate.
The Senate has the sole power to confirm those of the President's appointments that require consent, and to ratify treaties. There are, however, two exceptions to this rule: the House must also approve appointments to the Vice Presidency and any treaty that involves foreign trade. The Senate also tries impeachment cases for federal officials referred to it by the House.
In order to pass legislation and send it to the President for his signature, both the House and the Senate must pass the same bill by majority vote. If the President vetoes a bill, they may override his veto by passing the bill again in each chamber with at least two-thirds of each body voting in favor.
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THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH
Established by Article I of the Constitution, the Legislative Branch consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate, which together form the United States Congress. The Constitution grants Congress the sole authority to enact legislation and declare war, the right to confirm or reject many Presidential appointments, and substantial investigative powers.
The House of Representatives is made up of 435 elected members, divided among the 50 states in proportion to their total population. In addition, there are 6 non-voting members, representing the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and five territories of the United States. The presiding officer of the chamber is the Speaker of the House, elected by the Representatives. He or she is third in the line of succession to the Presidency.
Members of the House are elected every two years and must be 25 years of age, a U.S. citizen for at least seven years, and a resident of the state (but not necessarily the district) they represent.
The House has several powers assigned exclusively to it, including the power to initiate revenue bills, impeach federal officials, and elect the President in the case of an electoral college tie.
The Senate is composed of 100 Senators, 2 for each state. Until the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913, Senators were chosen by state legislatures, not by popular vote. Since then, they have been elected to six-year terms by the people of each state. Senator's terms are staggered so that about one-third of the Senate is up for reelection every two years. Senators must be 30 years of age, U.S. citizens for at least nine years, and residents of the state they represent.
The Vice President of the United States serves as President of the Senate and may cast the decisive vote in the event of a tie in the Senate.
The Senate has the sole power to confirm those of the President's appointments that require consent, and to ratify treaties. There are, however, two exceptions to this rule: the House must also approve appointments to the Vice Presidency and any treaty that involves foreign trade. The Senate also tries impeachment cases for federal officials referred to it by the House.
In order to pass legislation and send it to the President for his signature, both the House and the Senate must pass the same bill by majority vote. If the President vetoes a bill, they may override his veto by passing the bill again in each chamber with at least two-thirds of each body voting in favor.
12 The West. The exploration of the West. 'Gold Rush' in California. 'Oregon Country'.
17-05-2009 22:34
Major settlement of the western territories by migrants from the states in the east developed rapidly in the 1840s, largely[citation needed] through the Oregon Trail and the California Gold Rush of 1849; California experienced such a rapid growth in a few short months that it was admitted to statehood in 1850 without the normal transitory phase of becoming an official territory. The largest[citation needed] migration in American history occurred in the 1840s as the Latter-day Saints left the Midwest for the safety of the West. Both Omaha, Nebraska and St. Louis, Missouri laid claim to the title, "Gateway to the West" during this period. Omaha, home to the Union Pacific Railroad and the Mormon Trail, made its fortunes on outfitting settlers; St. Louis built itself upon the vast fur trade in the West before its settlement.
The 1850s were marked by political controversies which were part of the national issues leading to the Civil War, though California had been established as a non-slave state in the Compromise of 1850; California played little role in the war itself due to its geographic distance from major campaigns. In the aftermath of the Civil War, many former Confederate partisans migrated to California during the end of the Reconstruction period.
The California Gold Rush (1848–1855) began on January 24, 1848, when gold was discovered by James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill, in Coloma, California.[1] News of the discovery soon spread, resulting in some 300,000 men, women, and children coming to California from the rest of the United States and abroad.[2] Of the 300,000, approximately 150,000 arrived by sea while the remaining 150,000 arrived by land.
The effects of the Gold Rush were substantial. San Francisco grew from a small settlement to a boomtown, and roads, churches, schools and other towns were built throughout California. A system of laws and a government were created, leading to the admission of California as a free state in 1850.
The Gold Rush started at Sutter's Mill, near Coloma.[3] On January 24, 1848 James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found pieces of shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter, along the American River.[4]
Oregon Country or Oregon (to be distinguished from the American State also called Oregon) was a predominantly American term referring to a region of the Pacific Northwest of North America. The region was occupied by British and French Canadian fur traders from before 1810, and American settlers from the mid-1830s, with its coastal areas north from the Columbia River frequented by ships from all nations engaged in the fur trade, most of these from the 1790s through 1810s being Boston-based. The Oregon Treaty of 1846 ended disputed joint occupancy pursuant to the Treaty of 1818 and established the British-American boundary at the 49th parallel.
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Major settlement of the western territories by migrants from the states in the east developed rapidly in the 1840s, largely[citation needed] through the Oregon Trail and the California Gold Rush of 1849; California experienced such a rapid growth in a few short months that it was admitted to statehood in 1850 without the normal transitory phase of becoming an official territory. The largest[citation needed] migration in American history occurred in the 1840s as the Latter-day Saints left the Midwest for the safety of the West. Both Omaha, Nebraska and St. Louis, Missouri laid claim to the title, "Gateway to the West" during this period. Omaha, home to the Union Pacific Railroad and the Mormon Trail, made its fortunes on outfitting settlers; St. Louis built itself upon the vast fur trade in the West before its settlement.
The 1850s were marked by political controversies which were part of the national issues leading to the Civil War, though California had been established as a non-slave state in the Compromise of 1850; California played little role in the war itself due to its geographic distance from major campaigns. In the aftermath of the Civil War, many former Confederate partisans migrated to California during the end of the Reconstruction period.
The California Gold Rush (1848–1855) began on January 24, 1848, when gold was discovered by James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill, in Coloma, California.[1] News of the discovery soon spread, resulting in some 300,000 men, women, and children coming to California from the rest of the United States and abroad.[2] Of the 300,000, approximately 150,000 arrived by sea while the remaining 150,000 arrived by land.
The effects of the Gold Rush were substantial. San Francisco grew from a small settlement to a boomtown, and roads, churches, schools and other towns were built throughout California. A system of laws and a government were created, leading to the admission of California as a free state in 1850.
The Gold Rush started at Sutter's Mill, near Coloma.[3] On January 24, 1848 James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found pieces of shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter, along the American River.[4]
Oregon Country or Oregon (to be distinguished from the American State also called Oregon) was a predominantly American term referring to a region of the Pacific Northwest of North America. The region was occupied by British and French Canadian fur traders from before 1810, and American settlers from the mid-1830s, with its coastal areas north from the Columbia River frequented by ships from all nations engaged in the fur trade, most of these from the 1790s through 1810s being Boston-based. The Oregon Treaty of 1846 ended disputed joint occupancy pursuant to the Treaty of 1818 and established the British-American boundary at the 49th parallel.
11 The Midwest. The growth of the territory in the 19th century. Exploration of the Great Plains.
17-05-2009 22:23
19th century
The region was shaped by the relative absence of slavery (except for Missouri), pioneer settlement, education in one-room free public schools, democratic notions brought by American Revolutionary War veterans, Protestant faiths and experimentation, and agricultural wealth transported on the Ohio River riverboats, flatboats, canal boats, and railroads.
The Midwestern United States (in the U.S. generally referred to as the Midwest) is one of the four geographic regions within the United States of America that are officially recognized by the United States Census Bureau.
The region consists of twelve states in the central and inland northeastern US: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin.
The Great Plains are the broad expanse of prairie and steppe which lie west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada. This area covers parts of the U.S. states of Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas and Wyoming, and the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and into Mexico. In Canada the term prairie is more common, and the region is known as the Prairie Provinces or simply "the Prairies".
The Great Plains are the westernmost portion of the vast North American Interior Plains, which extend east to the Appalachian Plateau. The United States Geological Survey divides the Great Plains in the United States into ten physiographic subdivisions:
Historically, the Great Plains were the range of the bison and of the Great Plains culture of the Native American tribes of the Blackfeet, Crow, Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Comanche and others. Eastern portions of the Great Plains were inhabited by tribes who lived in semipermanent villages of earth lodges, such as the Arikara, Mandan, Pawnee and Wichita.
The Great Plains are part of the floristic North American Prairies Province, which extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Appalachian mountains.
EXPLORATION
Exploration of the Great Plains.
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19th century
The region was shaped by the relative absence of slavery (except for Missouri), pioneer settlement, education in one-room free public schools, democratic notions brought by American Revolutionary War veterans, Protestant faiths and experimentation, and agricultural wealth transported on the Ohio River riverboats, flatboats, canal boats, and railroads.
The Midwestern United States (in the U.S. generally referred to as the Midwest) is one of the four geographic regions within the United States of America that are officially recognized by the United States Census Bureau.
The region consists of twelve states in the central and inland northeastern US: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin.
The Great Plains are the broad expanse of prairie and steppe which lie west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada. This area covers parts of the U.S. states of Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas and Wyoming, and the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and into Mexico. In Canada the term prairie is more common, and the region is known as the Prairie Provinces or simply "the Prairies".
The Great Plains are the westernmost portion of the vast North American Interior Plains, which extend east to the Appalachian Plateau. The United States Geological Survey divides the Great Plains in the United States into ten physiographic subdivisions:
Historically, the Great Plains were the range of the bison and of the Great Plains culture of the Native American tribes of the Blackfeet, Crow, Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Comanche and others. Eastern portions of the Great Plains were inhabited by tribes who lived in semipermanent villages of earth lodges, such as the Arikara, Mandan, Pawnee and Wichita.
The Great Plains are part of the floristic North American Prairies Province, which extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Appalachian mountains.
EXPLORATION
Exploration of the Great Plains.
46-50
17-05-2009 21:39
46. Standard American English (SAE) -What is it?
Standard American English is the communal language of educated professionals. It is easily understood by persons from all geographical regions, different educational backgrounds, and different ethnic and racial associations.
Persons who deal with the public and who want to present themselves as educated professionals need to understand the importance of having professional quality communication skills.
Many regions of the country are noted for nonstandard speech and/or language usages that are acceptable in their own area. And, persons with different racial and ethnic associations may have communication differences as a matter of course in communicating with their group. While acceptable within context, these differences mark individuals as a member of a specific group. Listeners will associate them with that specific group, and form impressions based on the members of that group as a whole, as opposed to a larger, more heterogeneous population.
Persons who need to present themselves as educated professionals should adopt the communication mode of educated professionals, i.e. Standard American English.
Standard American Language is communication using the formal rules of language, i.e. language that would be used in a formal business communication. Standard American English can be considered a “register,” or a communication mode we use when in a formal professional or business setting. Persons who use Standard American Language will be perceived as educated professions.
Most individuals use language that is common to the population with whom they interact. And often the language contains usages that do not follow the formal rules of grammar. Common areas of variance are:
pronoun case-Ex. “that was me” for “that was I”
verbs agreement-Ex..“he don’t work here” for “he doesn’t work here”
verb conjugation-Ex.”he had wrote his friend” for “he had written his friend”
double negatives-Ex. “he didn’t know nobody at school” for “he didn’t know anyone at school”
nonstandard words:-Ex. “ain’t,” “got (as in “I ain’t got to leave”), “done” (as in “he’s done gone”)
Nonstandard language reflects most strongly on the perceived education background of the individual. Using SAE language insures credibility of education
Non-standard, for, example, African American Vernacular English (AAVE)—also called African American English; less precisely Black English, Black Vernacular, Black English Vernacular (BEV), or Black Vernacular English (BVE)—is an African American variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of American English. Non-linguists sometimes call it Ebonics (a term that also has other meanings or strong connotations). Its pronunciation is, in some respects, common to Southern American English, which is spoken by many African Americans and many non-African Americans in the United States. There is little regional variation among speakers of AAVE.[1] Several creolists, including William Stewart, John Dillard, and John Rickford, argue that AAVE shares so many characteristics with creole dialects spoken by black people in much of the world that AAVE itself is a creole, while others maintain that there are no significant parallels.[2][3][4][5][6][7] As with all linguistic forms, its usage is influenced by age, status, topic and setting. There are many literary uses of this variety of English, particularly in African-American literature. Many features of AAVE are shared with English dialects spoken in the American South. While these are mostly regionalisms (i.e. originating from the dialect commonly spoken in the area, regardless of color), a number of them—such as the deletion of is—are used much more frequently by black speakers, suggesting that they have their origins in black speech.[9] The traits of AAVE that separate it from Standard American English (SAE) include:
• changes in pronunciation along definable patterns, many of which are found in creoles and dialects of other populations of West African descent (but which also emerge in English dialects that may be uninfluenced by West African languages, such as Newfoundland English);
• distinctive vocabulary; and
• the distinctive use of verb tenses.
47. The economic history of the United States has its roots in European settlements in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. The American colonies progressed from marginally successful colonial economies to a small, independent farming economy, which in 1776 became the United States of America. In 230 years the United States grew to a huge, integrated, industrialized economy that makes up over a quarter of the world economy. The main causes were a large unified market, a supportive political-legal system, vast areas of highly productive farmlands, vast natural resources (especially timber, coal and oil), and an entrepreneurial spirit and commitment to investing in material and human capital. In addition, the U.S. was able to exploit these resources due toЧитать далее...
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46. Standard American English (SAE) -What is it?
Standard American English is the communal language of educated professionals. It is easily understood by persons from all geographical regions, different educational backgrounds, and different ethnic and racial associations.
Persons who deal with the public and who want to present themselves as educated professionals need to understand the importance of having professional quality communication skills.
Many regions of the country are noted for nonstandard speech and/or language usages that are acceptable in their own area. And, persons with different racial and ethnic associations may have communication differences as a matter of course in communicating with their group. While acceptable within context, these differences mark individuals as a member of a specific group. Listeners will associate them with that specific group, and form impressions based on the members of that group as a whole, as opposed to a larger, more heterogeneous population.
Persons who need to present themselves as educated professionals should adopt the communication mode of educated professionals, i.e. Standard American English.
Standard American Language is communication using the formal rules of language, i.e. language that would be used in a formal business communication. Standard American English can be considered a “register,” or a communication mode we use when in a formal professional or business setting. Persons who use Standard American Language will be perceived as educated professions.
Most individuals use language that is common to the population with whom they interact. And often the language contains usages that do not follow the formal rules of grammar. Common areas of variance are:
pronoun case-Ex. “that was me” for “that was I”
verbs agreement-Ex..“he don’t work here” for “he doesn’t work here”
verb conjugation-Ex.”he had wrote his friend” for “he had written his friend”
double negatives-Ex. “he didn’t know nobody at school” for “he didn’t know anyone at school”
nonstandard words:-Ex. “ain’t,” “got (as in “I ain’t got to leave”), “done” (as in “he’s done gone”)
Nonstandard language reflects most strongly on the perceived education background of the individual. Using SAE language insures credibility of education
Non-standard, for, example, African American Vernacular English (AAVE)—also called African American English; less precisely Black English, Black Vernacular, Black English Vernacular (BEV), or Black Vernacular English (BVE)—is an African American variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of American English. Non-linguists sometimes call it Ebonics (a term that also has other meanings or strong connotations). Its pronunciation is, in some respects, common to Southern American English, which is spoken by many African Americans and many non-African Americans in the United States. There is little regional variation among speakers of AAVE.[1] Several creolists, including William Stewart, John Dillard, and John Rickford, argue that AAVE shares so many characteristics with creole dialects spoken by black people in much of the world that AAVE itself is a creole, while others maintain that there are no significant parallels.[2][3][4][5][6][7] As with all linguistic forms, its usage is influenced by age, status, topic and setting. There are many literary uses of this variety of English, particularly in African-American literature. Many features of AAVE are shared with English dialects spoken in the American South. While these are mostly regionalisms (i.e. originating from the dialect commonly spoken in the area, regardless of color), a number of them—such as the deletion of is—are used much more frequently by black speakers, suggesting that they have their origins in black speech.[9] The traits of AAVE that separate it from Standard American English (SAE) include:
• changes in pronunciation along definable patterns, many of which are found in creoles and dialects of other populations of West African descent (but which also emerge in English dialects that may be uninfluenced by West African languages, such as Newfoundland English);
• distinctive vocabulary; and
• the distinctive use of verb tenses.
47. The economic history of the United States has its roots in European settlements in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. The American colonies progressed from marginally successful colonial economies to a small, independent farming economy, which in 1776 became the United States of America. In 230 years the United States grew to a huge, integrated, industrialized economy that makes up over a quarter of the world economy. The main causes were a large unified market, a supportive political-legal system, vast areas of highly productive farmlands, vast natural resources (especially timber, coal and oil), and an entrepreneurial spirit and commitment to investing in material and human capital. In addition, the U.S. was able to exploit these resources due to
50 Pop Culture in America.
17-05-2009 21:24
According to television studies scholars specializing in quality television, such as Kristin Thompson, self-referentiality in mainstream American television (especially comedy) reflects and exemplifies the type of progression characterized previously. Thompson[20] argues shows such as The Simpsons use a "...flurry of cultural references, intentionally inconsistent characterization, and considerable self-reflexivity about television conventions and the status of the programme as a television show."[21] Extreme examples approach a kind of thematic infinite regress wherein distinctions between art and life, commerce and critique, ridicule and homage become intractably blurred.[19]
Long-running television series The Simpsons routinely alludes to mainstream media properties, as well as the commercial content of the show itself. In one episode, Bart complains about the crass commercialism of the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade while watching television. When he turns his head away from the television, he is shown floating by as an oversized inflatable balloon. The show also invokes liberal reference to contemporary issues as depicted in the mainstream, and often merges such references with unconventional and even esoteric associations to classical and postmodernist works of literature, entertainment and art.
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According to television studies scholars specializing in quality television, such as Kristin Thompson, self-referentiality in mainstream American television (especially comedy) reflects and exemplifies the type of progression characterized previously. Thompson[20] argues shows such as The Simpsons use a "...flurry of cultural references, intentionally inconsistent characterization, and considerable self-reflexivity about television conventions and the status of the programme as a television show."[21] Extreme examples approach a kind of thematic infinite regress wherein distinctions between art and life, commerce and critique, ridicule and homage become intractably blurred.[19]
Long-running television series The Simpsons routinely alludes to mainstream media properties, as well as the commercial content of the show itself. In one episode, Bart complains about the crass commercialism of the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade while watching television. When he turns his head away from the television, he is shown floating by as an oversized inflatable balloon. The show also invokes liberal reference to contemporary issues as depicted in the mainstream, and often merges such references with unconventional and even esoteric associations to classical and postmodernist works of literature, entertainment and art.
48 What are the reasons and consequences of 're-inventing' oneself in America?
17-05-2009 21:23
America faces serious challenges to maintain its storied status quo. Hurdles include a sinking economy, wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, the rising cost of education, global warming, a crumbling infrastructure and American workers with uncertain futures.
Trendwatchers are more acutely aware of these issues than most, but they’re also more hopeful. They recognize that these challenges can be overcome through creativity, innovation and deft planning. To accomplish this, the groundwork has to be laid in 2009, it can be postponed no longer.
Yesterday, Barack Obama became America’s 44th President. He was swept into power on a “change you can believe in” platform. For the U.S. and the rest of the world, change could not have arrived quickly enough.
We have reluctantly remained sidelined as events transpired but we believe the time to act is now. To that end, we submit for consideration the following platform for change, one that could define a visionary administration.
What follows are thought-starters, tangible beginnings designed to spark serious dialog and meaningful action.
http://www.ubercool.com/reinventing-america/#ixzz0Fml2GWWG&A
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America faces serious challenges to maintain its storied status quo. Hurdles include a sinking economy, wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, the rising cost of education, global warming, a crumbling infrastructure and American workers with uncertain futures.
Trendwatchers are more acutely aware of these issues than most, but they’re also more hopeful. They recognize that these challenges can be overcome through creativity, innovation and deft planning. To accomplish this, the groundwork has to be laid in 2009, it can be postponed no longer.
Yesterday, Barack Obama became America’s 44th President. He was swept into power on a “change you can believe in” platform. For the U.S. and the rest of the world, change could not have arrived quickly enough.
We have reluctantly remained sidelined as events transpired but we believe the time to act is now. To that end, we submit for consideration the following platform for change, one that could define a visionary administration.
What follows are thought-starters, tangible beginnings designed to spark serious dialog and meaningful action.
http://www.ubercool.com/reinventing-america/#ixzz0Fml2GWWG&A
45 Major community varieties of American English. Black English: its history, development, peculiarities.
17-05-2009 21:09
Traditionally, as far as geographical distribution of differences in American English is concerned, the eastern half of the United States has been divided into three major dialect areas: Northern, Midland and Southern. Often "Midland" is further divided into North Midland and South Midland. Some sub-dialect areas, like New England and Metropolitan New York City, can also be found. These sub-dialect areas have their own characteristic forms, which aren't typical of the main dialect area. The often mentioned 'tonic' meaning 'soda pop' or 'pop' in the New England area is one example. Other examples of regional variation in vocabulary are the typical Midland expression 'a quarter till the hour' and the Southern word 'lightwood' for '(kindling) firewood'.
Black English is a term used for both dialects of English and English-based pidgins and creoles, and whose meaning depends considerably upon the context, and particularly the part of the world.
The fact that many Black Americans, especially inner-city children, speak in a language of slang' is an easily observable fact. The name given to this speech has ranged from "the language of soul" to "the shuffling speech of slavery." Concern has been raised in recent times over the role and implications of this language in trying to educate inner-city African American children who speak in the language of slang. The performance of these children continues to lag behind that of whites.
Many linguists trace the development of Black English back to the time of slavery and the slave trade. Thus, the history of Black English must date back to about 1619 when a Dutch vessel landed in Jamestown with a cargo of twenty Africans.(Smitherman, 5) During the slave trade, ships collected slaves from several different nations rather than just trading with one nation. The rationale that justified this action was simple. Africans from different nations spoke different languages and could not communicate with each other, and thus were incapable of uniting to overthrow the ships crew. In 1744 slave ship Captain William Smith wrote: "...the safest way to trade is to trade with the different Nations, on either Side the River, and having some of every sort on board, there will be no more Likelihood of their succeding in a Plot, than of finishing the Tower of Babel," (Stoller, 19). Upon arriving in America, all the slaves had to be able to communicate with their masters in some way. Thus, all the slaves had to learn at least some degree of English vocabulary. This established English as a common language among slaves. The one language that all the slaves had in common was English. Linguists propose that Africans developed a pidgin language with the English language providing the vocabulary.
When the African slaves bore children, they must have taught them this African-English pidgin. It was necessary that they be able to communicate with the slave master, as well as other slaves. This by no means suggests that Africans immediately relinquished their mother tongues. It is probable that the children of slaves were taught original African languages, but they were probably of little use amongst their diverse peer group. The African-English pidgin now had native speakers and would be forced to fill the needs of a normal speech community. Any vocabulary needs would be filled by borrowing from other languages. The pidgin graduated from its role as, as a language of transaction, and became a creolized language.(Stoller, 21) Geneva Smitherman proposed that "this lingo [early Black English] involved the substitution of English for West African words, but within the same basic structure and idiom as that characterized West African language patterns," (Smitherman, 5). In a very real sense, this new language was a mixture of West African languages (such as Ibo, Yoruba, and Hausa) and English. Listed below are some of the West African language rules that were embedded in early Black English that Smitherman notes in her book Talkin and Testifyin.
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Traditionally, as far as geographical distribution of differences in American English is concerned, the eastern half of the United States has been divided into three major dialect areas: Northern, Midland and Southern. Often "Midland" is further divided into North Midland and South Midland. Some sub-dialect areas, like New England and Metropolitan New York City, can also be found. These sub-dialect areas have their own characteristic forms, which aren't typical of the main dialect area. The often mentioned 'tonic' meaning 'soda pop' or 'pop' in the New England area is one example. Other examples of regional variation in vocabulary are the typical Midland expression 'a quarter till the hour' and the Southern word 'lightwood' for '(kindling) firewood'.
Black English is a term used for both dialects of English and English-based pidgins and creoles, and whose meaning depends considerably upon the context, and particularly the part of the world.
The fact that many Black Americans, especially inner-city children, speak in a language of slang' is an easily observable fact. The name given to this speech has ranged from "the language of soul" to "the shuffling speech of slavery." Concern has been raised in recent times over the role and implications of this language in trying to educate inner-city African American children who speak in the language of slang. The performance of these children continues to lag behind that of whites.
Many linguists trace the development of Black English back to the time of slavery and the slave trade. Thus, the history of Black English must date back to about 1619 when a Dutch vessel landed in Jamestown with a cargo of twenty Africans.(Smitherman, 5) During the slave trade, ships collected slaves from several different nations rather than just trading with one nation. The rationale that justified this action was simple. Africans from different nations spoke different languages and could not communicate with each other, and thus were incapable of uniting to overthrow the ships crew. In 1744 slave ship Captain William Smith wrote: "...the safest way to trade is to trade with the different Nations, on either Side the River, and having some of every sort on board, there will be no more Likelihood of their succeding in a Plot, than of finishing the Tower of Babel," (Stoller, 19). Upon arriving in America, all the slaves had to be able to communicate with their masters in some way. Thus, all the slaves had to learn at least some degree of English vocabulary. This established English as a common language among slaves. The one language that all the slaves had in common was English. Linguists propose that Africans developed a pidgin language with the English language providing the vocabulary.
When the African slaves bore children, they must have taught them this African-English pidgin. It was necessary that they be able to communicate with the slave master, as well as other slaves. This by no means suggests that Africans immediately relinquished their mother tongues. It is probable that the children of slaves were taught original African languages, but they were probably of little use amongst their diverse peer group. The African-English pidgin now had native speakers and would be forced to fill the needs of a normal speech community. Any vocabulary needs would be filled by borrowing from other languages. The pidgin graduated from its role as, as a language of transaction, and became a creolized language.(Stoller, 21) Geneva Smitherman proposed that "this lingo [early Black English] involved the substitution of English for West African words, but within the same basic structure and idiom as that characterized West African language patterns," (Smitherman, 5). In a very real sense, this new language was a mixture of West African languages (such as Ibo, Yoruba, and Hausa) and English. Listed below are some of the West African language rules that were embedded in early Black English that Smitherman notes in her book Talkin and Testifyin.
44 Major geographical varieties of American English.
17-05-2009 21:02
Most North American speech is rhotic, as English was in most places in the 17th century. Rhoticity was further supported by Hiberno-English and Scottish English as well as the fact most regions of England at this time also had rhotic accents. In most varieties of North American English, the sound corresponding to the letter r is a retroflex [] or alveolar approximant [] rather than a trill or a tap. The loss of syllable-final r in North America is confined mostly to the accents of eastern New England, New York City and surrounding areas, South Philadelphia, and the coastal portions of the South. In rural tidewater Virginia and eastern New England, 'r' is non-rhotic in accented (such as "bird", "work", "first", "birthday") as well as unaccented syllables, although this is declining among the younger generation of speakers. Dropping of syllable-final r sometimes happens in natively rhotic dialects if r is located in unaccented syllables or words and the next syllable or word begins in a consonant. In England, the lost r was often changed into [] (schwa), giving rise to a new class of falling diphthongs. Furthermore, the er sound of fur or butter, is realized in AmE as a monophthongal r-colored vowel (stressed [] or unstressed [] as represented in the IPA). This does not happen in the non-rhotic varieties of North American speech.
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Most North American speech is rhotic, as English was in most places in the 17th century. Rhoticity was further supported by Hiberno-English and Scottish English as well as the fact most regions of England at this time also had rhotic accents. In most varieties of North American English, the sound corresponding to the letter r is a retroflex [] or alveolar approximant [] rather than a trill or a tap. The loss of syllable-final r in North America is confined mostly to the accents of eastern New England, New York City and surrounding areas, South Philadelphia, and the coastal portions of the South. In rural tidewater Virginia and eastern New England, 'r' is non-rhotic in accented (such as "bird", "work", "first", "birthday") as well as unaccented syllables, although this is declining among the younger generation of speakers. Dropping of syllable-final r sometimes happens in natively rhotic dialects if r is located in unaccented syllables or words and the next syllable or word begins in a consonant. In England, the lost r was often changed into [] (schwa), giving rise to a new class of falling diphthongs. Furthermore, the er sound of fur or butter, is realized in AmE as a monophthongal r-colored vowel (stressed [] or unstressed [] as represented in the IPA). This does not happen in the non-rhotic varieties of North American speech.
43 Linguistic situation in the US now. The History of American English.
17-05-2009 20:57
American English (variously abbreviated AmE, AE, AmEng, USEng, en-US[1]), also known as United States English or U.S. English, is a set of dialects of the English language used mostly in the United States. Approximately two thirds of native speakers of English live in the United States.
English is the most common language in the United States. Though the U.S. federal government has no official language, English is considered the de facto language of the United States due to its widespread use. English has been given official status by 30 of the 50 state governments
The use of English in the United States was inherited from British colonization. The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America in the 17th century. During that time, there were also speakers in North America of Spanish, French, Dutch, German, Norwegian, Swedish, Scots, Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Finnish, Russian (Alaska) and numerous Native American languages.
The process of coining new lexical items started as soon as the colonists began borrowing names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from the Native American languages. Examples of such names are opossum, raccoon, squash and moose (from Algonquian).
The rise of capitalism, the development of industry and material innovations throughout the 19th and 20th centuries were the source of a massive stock of distinctive new words, phrases and idioms.
Already existing English words —such as store, shop, dry goods, haberdashery, lumber— underwent shifts in meaning; some —such as mason, student, clerk, the verbs can (as in "canned goods"), ship, fix, carry, enroll (as in school), run (as in "run a business"), release and haul— were given new significations, while others (such as tradesman) have retained meanings that disappeared in England.
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American English (variously abbreviated AmE, AE, AmEng, USEng, en-US[1]), also known as United States English or U.S. English, is a set of dialects of the English language used mostly in the United States. Approximately two thirds of native speakers of English live in the United States.
English is the most common language in the United States. Though the U.S. federal government has no official language, English is considered the de facto language of the United States due to its widespread use. English has been given official status by 30 of the 50 state governments
The use of English in the United States was inherited from British colonization. The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America in the 17th century. During that time, there were also speakers in North America of Spanish, French, Dutch, German, Norwegian, Swedish, Scots, Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Finnish, Russian (Alaska) and numerous Native American languages.
The process of coining new lexical items started as soon as the colonists began borrowing names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from the Native American languages. Examples of such names are opossum, raccoon, squash and moose (from Algonquian).
The rise of capitalism, the development of industry and material innovations throughout the 19th and 20th centuries were the source of a massive stock of distinctive new words, phrases and idioms.
Already existing English words —such as store, shop, dry goods, haberdashery, lumber— underwent shifts in meaning; some —such as mason, student, clerk, the verbs can (as in "canned goods"), ship, fix, carry, enroll (as in school), run (as in "run a business"), release and haul— were given new significations, while others (such as tradesman) have retained meanings that disappeared in England.
42 Family Values: house and home.
17-05-2009 20:50
The Family
Another aspect of American society that may bewilder non-Americans is the family. The nuclear family structure (parents and children) is so alien to most cultures in the world that it is often misunderstood. The main purpose of the American family is to bring about the happiness of each individual family member. The traditional family values include love and respect for parents, as well as for all members of the family.
However, the emphasis on the individual and his/her right to happiness can be confusing. It allows children to disagree, even argue with their parents. While in most other cultures such action would be a sign of disrespect and a lack of love, that is not the case in the United States. It is simply a part of developing one's independence.
Many foreign students and visitors are welcomed by host families, who invite them into their homes for dinner or to join in family activities. Frequently visitors are told to "make themselves at home" and, at times, may appear to be "left alone."
It certainly is nice to be treated as an honored guest in someone's home, but one of the highest compliments that an American can give foreign guests is to treat them like members of the family, which means to give them the "freedom of the house" to do what they want, to "raid the refrigerator" on their own, or to have some quiet time alone.
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The Family
Another aspect of American society that may bewilder non-Americans is the family. The nuclear family structure (parents and children) is so alien to most cultures in the world that it is often misunderstood. The main purpose of the American family is to bring about the happiness of each individual family member. The traditional family values include love and respect for parents, as well as for all members of the family.
However, the emphasis on the individual and his/her right to happiness can be confusing. It allows children to disagree, even argue with their parents. While in most other cultures such action would be a sign of disrespect and a lack of love, that is not the case in the United States. It is simply a part of developing one's independence.
Many foreign students and visitors are welcomed by host families, who invite them into their homes for dinner or to join in family activities. Frequently visitors are told to "make themselves at home" and, at times, may appear to be "left alone."
It certainly is nice to be treated as an honored guest in someone's home, but one of the highest compliments that an American can give foreign guests is to treat them like members of the family, which means to give them the "freedom of the house" to do what they want, to "raid the refrigerator" on their own, or to have some quiet time alone.
41 # American Beliefs and values, their historical roots.
17-05-2009 20:41
FREEDOM
Americans think that their society is the freest in the world. This ideal is pushed down their throats by everyone - teachers, media, politicians. This is the very idea that unifies America.
Proof: Even today's immigration offices are flooded with hopeful applicants.
Root: Historically speaking, America is a nation who chose to live there as the better alternative, because they wanted to get away from religious or political persecution or misery.
The American Constitution is the first democratic constitution of the world. The first ten amendments to the American Constitution, the Bill of Rights essentially anticipates the Declaration of Human Rights. The Bill of Rights states that all people are equal and that the role of Government is to protect each person's basic "inalienable" rights ( freedom of speech, press, religion).
This ideal of freedom has not always corresponded to reality.
* slavery and discrimination against Black Americans
* extinction of Native Americans
* the Red Hunt masterminded by Republican Senator McCarthy in the 50ies: At the height of the Cold War innumerable federal officials and artists suspected of communist affiliations were forced to appear before Senate Committees in order to name names. The result was that many government employees were fired and that artist could no longer act or publish.
* Interventions through the CIA in Central and South America, namely in Guatemala, Chile, El Salvador and Nicaragua, in order to bring down or prevent socialist governments and to keep in power right wing rulers that would do what the USA wanted them to.
At the same time profound changes and liberalization were made happen by the various protest movements in the 60ies, which started in San Francisco. Generally speaking, the USA has always been at the forefront of civil right legislation (blacks, women, gays.)
INDIVIDUALISM
Most major American philosophers in the 18th and 19th centuries, many thinkers and writers throughout the US history held that the free individual's identity is sacred and that the individual's dignity and integrity should never be violated in any way.
Many writers argued for more individual self-reliance:
* The idea is that you ought to trust exclusively yourself and your own judgment and conscience.
* We should constantly revolt against routine and habitual ways of thinking
* We can control our fate (myth: the American Adam who was given a second chance by God!)
Individualism, understood not only as self-reliance but also as economic self-sufficiency, has been a central theme in American history.
Historical roots: In the early days, most Americans were farmers whose success depended on their ability to confront the hardships of land and climate on their own, without help. Innumerable westerns and many more recent mainstream movies glorify such frontier heroes. Moreover a lot of rags-to-riches stories, like the one about the Rockefellers, reflect this attitude.
Today: Most Americans work for large organizations, but very few really like it. Owning your own private business is still most people's dream, because then nobody interferes and you have to rely on yourself. As a result, it is much easier to open your own business because there are fewer regulations. (Death of a Salesman)
The ideal of freedom is also reflected in people's attitude towards government: Americans strongly disapprove of government interference. "Government stay out!" (? Volunteerism)
As a matter of fact, there is no comprehensive welfare system in the USA. Although workers have incomparably fewer rights than in Europe, unions are weak. Even those at the bottom are in favor of laws that restrict unions, just because they could restrict their freedom. (e.g.: just private health care and old pension plans)
Another result: social Darwinism: survival of the fittest, It's everybody's fault if they don't make it
VOLUNTEERISM
This concept is closely bound up with the idea of self reliance and "government stay out", "we can help ourselves".
Definition: Volunteerism means helping through privately initiated, rather than government sponsored programs. Volunteers organize themselves in order to solve community problems:
o saving an educational TV Station from going bankrupt
o new uniforms for the school football teams
o ? raise money by selling cookies etc.
The willingness to participate in such groups is so widespread that six out of ten Americans are members of volunteer organizations.
MOBILITY
The confidence of Americans in the abundance of resources relates to their habit of mobility: For them, the most practical solution to problems is often to move elsewhere and make a fresh start. Mobility is not a sign of aimlessness but of optimism, of the willingness to get up and do something about your situation.
Many Americans take it for granted thatЧитать далее...
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FREEDOM
Americans think that their society is the freest in the world. This ideal is pushed down their throats by everyone - teachers, media, politicians. This is the very idea that unifies America.
Proof: Even today's immigration offices are flooded with hopeful applicants.
Root: Historically speaking, America is a nation who chose to live there as the better alternative, because they wanted to get away from religious or political persecution or misery.
The American Constitution is the first democratic constitution of the world. The first ten amendments to the American Constitution, the Bill of Rights essentially anticipates the Declaration of Human Rights. The Bill of Rights states that all people are equal and that the role of Government is to protect each person's basic "inalienable" rights ( freedom of speech, press, religion).
This ideal of freedom has not always corresponded to reality.
* slavery and discrimination against Black Americans
* extinction of Native Americans
* the Red Hunt masterminded by Republican Senator McCarthy in the 50ies: At the height of the Cold War innumerable federal officials and artists suspected of communist affiliations were forced to appear before Senate Committees in order to name names. The result was that many government employees were fired and that artist could no longer act or publish.
* Interventions through the CIA in Central and South America, namely in Guatemala, Chile, El Salvador and Nicaragua, in order to bring down or prevent socialist governments and to keep in power right wing rulers that would do what the USA wanted them to.
At the same time profound changes and liberalization were made happen by the various protest movements in the 60ies, which started in San Francisco. Generally speaking, the USA has always been at the forefront of civil right legislation (blacks, women, gays.)
INDIVIDUALISM
Most major American philosophers in the 18th and 19th centuries, many thinkers and writers throughout the US history held that the free individual's identity is sacred and that the individual's dignity and integrity should never be violated in any way.
Many writers argued for more individual self-reliance:
* The idea is that you ought to trust exclusively yourself and your own judgment and conscience.
* We should constantly revolt against routine and habitual ways of thinking
* We can control our fate (myth: the American Adam who was given a second chance by God!)
Individualism, understood not only as self-reliance but also as economic self-sufficiency, has been a central theme in American history.
Historical roots: In the early days, most Americans were farmers whose success depended on their ability to confront the hardships of land and climate on their own, without help. Innumerable westerns and many more recent mainstream movies glorify such frontier heroes. Moreover a lot of rags-to-riches stories, like the one about the Rockefellers, reflect this attitude.
Today: Most Americans work for large organizations, but very few really like it. Owning your own private business is still most people's dream, because then nobody interferes and you have to rely on yourself. As a result, it is much easier to open your own business because there are fewer regulations. (Death of a Salesman)
The ideal of freedom is also reflected in people's attitude towards government: Americans strongly disapprove of government interference. "Government stay out!" (? Volunteerism)
As a matter of fact, there is no comprehensive welfare system in the USA. Although workers have incomparably fewer rights than in Europe, unions are weak. Even those at the bottom are in favor of laws that restrict unions, just because they could restrict their freedom. (e.g.: just private health care and old pension plans)
Another result: social Darwinism: survival of the fittest, It's everybody's fault if they don't make it
VOLUNTEERISM
This concept is closely bound up with the idea of self reliance and "government stay out", "we can help ourselves".
Definition: Volunteerism means helping through privately initiated, rather than government sponsored programs. Volunteers organize themselves in order to solve community problems:
o saving an educational TV Station from going bankrupt
o new uniforms for the school football teams
o ? raise money by selling cookies etc.
The willingness to participate in such groups is so widespread that six out of ten Americans are members of volunteer organizations.
MOBILITY
The confidence of Americans in the abundance of resources relates to their habit of mobility: For them, the most practical solution to problems is often to move elsewhere and make a fresh start. Mobility is not a sign of aimlessness but of optimism, of the willingness to get up and do something about your situation.
Many Americans take it for granted that
40 The American Dream: historical and philosophical roots.
17-05-2009 20:34
The American Dream is a national ethos and world mythos regarding the United States of America, in which the democratic ideals are translated within the American context into a benevolent view of its very purpose —that [its] prosperity is founded in liberty, and (conversely) that [its] liberty can be advanced through prosperity.
In the American Dream, the goals of all people (citizens and residents) to secure a livelihood, gain an education, build friendships and family, and live free of oppression and in peace, are regarded as fundamental to the philosophy, principles, and purpose for which the United States exists, and first among the reasons for and attributable causes of its continuing prosperity.
The American Dream is a concept that touches on the two fundamental pillars of United States prosperity —that liberty and freedom are regarded as sacred and thus constitutional for all people, and that the flourishing presence of material, societal, and social opportunities offer the prospect of happier and more fulfilled lives (cf. Preamble to the Constitution). The first (liberty) draws those who seek freedom from oppression. The second (opportunity) draws people seeking freedom from poverty.
These aspects, along with various other important dimensions, converge in both philosophy and in effect, in such concepts as economic freedom —the ability to earn a living based on not just on the communal value of one's labours, but the current worth of one's intelligence, discipline, and creativity —and religious liberty, namely the ability to practice faith in the manner that an individual has chosen.
The result of these factors, along with the human energy that these attract, is that the United States is now a highly synergistic and efficient society —such that contributes to its continued innovation in all areas of academic study, government, and law. Ultimately, though not without certain caveats, the prosperity of the United States is understood to serve not just the American people, but rather serves the purpose of bringing increased freedom and prosperity to all human society.
The United States has since the early 19th century been regarded as a "beacon" of liberty and prosperity —owed to a combination of the philosophical and ethical principles upon which its nationhood was established, along with its natural wealth as the most bountiful part of the New World.
The phrase's meaning has evolved over the course of American history. While historically traced to the New World mystique — the availability of land and the continuing American expansion —the ethos today simply indicates one's ability, through participation in the resonant society and culture of the United States, to bring prosperity to both themselves and to the community of all people on Earth.
The Founding Fathers used the phrase, "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" to encompass all that is available in America. America has been viewed as a land in which one's prospects in life are defined by one's talents and energy rather than by one's family wealth or political connections. The American Dream often refers to the opportunity for immigrants to achieve greater material prosperity than was possible in their countries of origin.
According to the Dream, this includes the opportunity for one's children to grow up and receive an education and its consequent career opportunities. It is the opportunity to make individual choices without the restrictions of class, caste, religion, race, or ethnic group.
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The American Dream is a national ethos and world mythos regarding the United States of America, in which the democratic ideals are translated within the American context into a benevolent view of its very purpose —that [its] prosperity is founded in liberty, and (conversely) that [its] liberty can be advanced through prosperity.
In the American Dream, the goals of all people (citizens and residents) to secure a livelihood, gain an education, build friendships and family, and live free of oppression and in peace, are regarded as fundamental to the philosophy, principles, and purpose for which the United States exists, and first among the reasons for and attributable causes of its continuing prosperity.
The American Dream is a concept that touches on the two fundamental pillars of United States prosperity —that liberty and freedom are regarded as sacred and thus constitutional for all people, and that the flourishing presence of material, societal, and social opportunities offer the prospect of happier and more fulfilled lives (cf. Preamble to the Constitution). The first (liberty) draws those who seek freedom from oppression. The second (opportunity) draws people seeking freedom from poverty.
These aspects, along with various other important dimensions, converge in both philosophy and in effect, in such concepts as economic freedom —the ability to earn a living based on not just on the communal value of one's labours, but the current worth of one's intelligence, discipline, and creativity —and religious liberty, namely the ability to practice faith in the manner that an individual has chosen.
The result of these factors, along with the human energy that these attract, is that the United States is now a highly synergistic and efficient society —such that contributes to its continued innovation in all areas of academic study, government, and law. Ultimately, though not without certain caveats, the prosperity of the United States is understood to serve not just the American people, but rather serves the purpose of bringing increased freedom and prosperity to all human society.
The United States has since the early 19th century been regarded as a "beacon" of liberty and prosperity —owed to a combination of the philosophical and ethical principles upon which its nationhood was established, along with its natural wealth as the most bountiful part of the New World.
The phrase's meaning has evolved over the course of American history. While historically traced to the New World mystique — the availability of land and the continuing American expansion —the ethos today simply indicates one's ability, through participation in the resonant society and culture of the United States, to bring prosperity to both themselves and to the community of all people on Earth.
The Founding Fathers used the phrase, "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" to encompass all that is available in America. America has been viewed as a land in which one's prospects in life are defined by one's talents and energy rather than by one's family wealth or political connections. The American Dream often refers to the opportunity for immigrants to achieve greater material prosperity than was possible in their countries of origin.
According to the Dream, this includes the opportunity for one's children to grow up and receive an education and its consequent career opportunities. It is the opportunity to make individual choices without the restrictions of class, caste, religion, race, or ethnic group.
34-39
17-05-2009 20:28
34.
General Pattern of Education in the USA
The general pattern of education in the USA is an eight-year elementary school, followed by a four-year high school. This has been called 8—4 plan organization. It is proceeded, in many localities, by nursery schools and kindergartens. It is followed by a four-year college and professional schools. This traditional pattern, however, has been varied in many different ways. The 6—3— 3 plan consists of a six-year elementary school, a three-year junior high school, and a three-year senior high school. Another variation is a 6—6 plan organization, with a six-year elementary school followed by a six-year secondary school.American education provides a program for children, beginning at the age of 6 and continuing up to the age of 16 in some of the states, and to 18 in others.
The elementary school in the United States is generally considered to include the first six or eight grades of the common-school system, depending upon the organization that has been accepted for the secondary school. It has been called the “grade school” or the “grammar school”.
There is no single governmental agency to prescribe for the American school system, different types of organization and of curriculum are tried out.
The length of the school year varies among the states. Wide variation exists also in the length of the school day. A common practice is to have school in session from 9:00 to 12:00 in the morning and from 1:00 to 3:30 in the afternoon, Monday through Friday. The school day for the lower grades is often from 30 minutes to an hour shorter. Most schools require some homework to be done by elementary pupils. Elementary Schools, High Schools and Institutions of Higher Learning
Elementary Schools, High Schools and Institutions of Higher Learning
There are eight years of elementary schooling. The elementary school is followed by four years of secondary school, or high school. Often the last two years of elementary and the first years of secondary school are combined into a junior high school.
The school year is nine months in length, beginning early in September and sometimes a shorter one in spring. There are slight variations from place to place. Students enter the first grade at the age of six and attendance is compulsory in most states until the age of sixteen or until the student has finished the eighth grade.
The elementary schools tend to be small. The high schools are generally larger and accommodate pupils from four or five elementary schools. A small town generally has several elementary schools and one high school. In some rural communities the one-room country school house still exists. Here may be found from five to twenty-five pupils in grades one through eight, all taught by the same teacher.
Admission to the American high school is automatic on completion of the elementary school. During the four-year high school program the student studies four or five major subjects per year, and classes in each of these subjects meet for an hour a day, five days a week. In addition, the student usually has classes in physical education, music, and art several times a week. If he fails a course, he repeats only that course and not the work of the entire year. Students must complete a certain number of courses in order to receive a diploma, or a certificate of graduation.
Institutions of higher learning supported by public funds are not absolutely free. The state colleges and universities charge a fee for tuition or registration. This fee is higher for those who come from outside the state. Working one’s way through college is commonplace.
Usually there is no admission examination required by a state university for those who have finished high school within the state. Sometimes a certain pattern of high school studies is necessary, however, and some state universities require a certain scholastic average, or average of high school grades.
Private colleges and universities, especially the larger, well-known ones such as Harvard, Princeton, and Yale, have rigid scholastic requirements for entrance, including an examination.
It usually takes four years to meet the requirements for a Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science degree.A Master of Arts or Master of Science degree may be obtained in one or two additional years.The highest academic degree is the Doctor of Philosophy.It may take any number of years to complete the original research work necessary to obtain this degree.
Higher Education Institutions
It has become common for the college program to be divided into broad fields,such as languages and literature,the social sciences,the sciences and mathematics, and the fine arts.Many colleges require all freshmen and sophomores to take one or two full-year courses in each of three fields.Certain Courses,such as English or history,may be required for all,with some election permitted in the other fields.
Higher educational institutions usually are governed by a board of regents or aЧитать далее...
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34.
General Pattern of Education in the USA
The general pattern of education in the USA is an eight-year elementary school, followed by a four-year high school. This has been called 8—4 plan organization. It is proceeded, in many localities, by nursery schools and kindergartens. It is followed by a four-year college and professional schools. This traditional pattern, however, has been varied in many different ways. The 6—3— 3 plan consists of a six-year elementary school, a three-year junior high school, and a three-year senior high school. Another variation is a 6—6 plan organization, with a six-year elementary school followed by a six-year secondary school.American education provides a program for children, beginning at the age of 6 and continuing up to the age of 16 in some of the states, and to 18 in others.
The elementary school in the United States is generally considered to include the first six or eight grades of the common-school system, depending upon the organization that has been accepted for the secondary school. It has been called the “grade school” or the “grammar school”.
There is no single governmental agency to prescribe for the American school system, different types of organization and of curriculum are tried out.
The length of the school year varies among the states. Wide variation exists also in the length of the school day. A common practice is to have school in session from 9:00 to 12:00 in the morning and from 1:00 to 3:30 in the afternoon, Monday through Friday. The school day for the lower grades is often from 30 minutes to an hour shorter. Most schools require some homework to be done by elementary pupils. Elementary Schools, High Schools and Institutions of Higher Learning
Elementary Schools, High Schools and Institutions of Higher Learning
There are eight years of elementary schooling. The elementary school is followed by four years of secondary school, or high school. Often the last two years of elementary and the first years of secondary school are combined into a junior high school.
The school year is nine months in length, beginning early in September and sometimes a shorter one in spring. There are slight variations from place to place. Students enter the first grade at the age of six and attendance is compulsory in most states until the age of sixteen or until the student has finished the eighth grade.
The elementary schools tend to be small. The high schools are generally larger and accommodate pupils from four or five elementary schools. A small town generally has several elementary schools and one high school. In some rural communities the one-room country school house still exists. Here may be found from five to twenty-five pupils in grades one through eight, all taught by the same teacher.
Admission to the American high school is automatic on completion of the elementary school. During the four-year high school program the student studies four or five major subjects per year, and classes in each of these subjects meet for an hour a day, five days a week. In addition, the student usually has classes in physical education, music, and art several times a week. If he fails a course, he repeats only that course and not the work of the entire year. Students must complete a certain number of courses in order to receive a diploma, or a certificate of graduation.
Institutions of higher learning supported by public funds are not absolutely free. The state colleges and universities charge a fee for tuition or registration. This fee is higher for those who come from outside the state. Working one’s way through college is commonplace.
Usually there is no admission examination required by a state university for those who have finished high school within the state. Sometimes a certain pattern of high school studies is necessary, however, and some state universities require a certain scholastic average, or average of high school grades.
Private colleges and universities, especially the larger, well-known ones such as Harvard, Princeton, and Yale, have rigid scholastic requirements for entrance, including an examination.
It usually takes four years to meet the requirements for a Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science degree.A Master of Arts or Master of Science degree may be obtained in one or two additional years.The highest academic degree is the Doctor of Philosophy.It may take any number of years to complete the original research work necessary to obtain this degree.
Higher Education Institutions
It has become common for the college program to be divided into broad fields,such as languages and literature,the social sciences,the sciences and mathematics, and the fine arts.Many colleges require all freshmen and sophomores to take one or two full-year courses in each of three fields.Certain Courses,such as English or history,may be required for all,with some election permitted in the other fields.
Higher educational institutions usually are governed by a board of regents or a
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17-05-2009 20:27
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26. The term third party is used in the United States for a political party other than one of the two major parties, at present, the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. It is used as (innumerate) shorthand for all such parties, or sometimes only the largest of them. The term is often used dismissively; also called minor parties. See also Third party (politics).
Historically, in the U.S. since the formation of organized political parties in the 1830s, the country has had a two-party system. Following Duverger's law, the Electoral College with its "winner take all" award of electors in presidential elections plus, for Congress, single-seat plurality voting, have, over time, created the two-party system. Another contributing factor is the division of the government into three separate branches, which differs from the parliamentary system.
Although third parties rarely win national elections, they can have an effect on them. Third parties can draw attention to issues that may be ignored by the majority parties. If the issue finds resonance with the voters, one or more of the major parties may adopt the issue into its own party platform. Also, a third party may be used by the voter to cast a protest vote as a form of referendum on an important issue. Third parties may also help voter turnout bringing more people to the polls. Third party candidates at the top of the ticket can help to draw attention to other party candidates down the ballot, helping them to win local or state office. In 2004 the U.S. electorate consisted of an estimated 43% registered Democrats and 33% registered Republicans, with independents and those belonging to other parties constituting 25%.
информатика тест
09-04-2009 22:26
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Тест2
1. Броузер Internet Explorer способен провести поиск информации в Internet с помощью:
а) информационно-поисковой системы MCN Search компании Microsoft;
б) российской поисковой машины Yandex;
в) встроенной собственной поисковой машины;
г) поисковых машин MCN Search, Yandex, Rambler и Апорт.
Ответ:
2. Основное преимущество поиска информации с помощью поисковых каталогов состоит в том, что:
а) в каталоге можно найти информацию по любой интересующей вас теме;
б) в каталоге обязательно бывают представлены
THE convention of philadelpya
05-04-2009 23:02
The Philadelphia Convention (now also known as the Constitutional Convention, the Federal Convention, or the "Grand Convention at Philadelphia") took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to address problems in governing the United States of America, which had been operating under the Articles of Confederation following independence from Great Britain. Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, was from the outset to create a new government rather than "fix" the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the convention. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution. The Convention is one of the central events in the history of the United States.
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The Philadelphia Convention (now also known as the Constitutional Convention, the Federal Convention, or the "Grand Convention at Philadelphia") took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to address problems in governing the United States of America, which had been operating under the Articles of Confederation following independence from Great Britain. Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, was from the outset to create a new government rather than "fix" the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the convention. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution. The Convention is one of the central events in the history of the United States.
Bill of rights!
05-04-2009 22:42
The Bill of Rights prohibits Congress from making any law respecting an establishment of religion, forbids infringement of the right to keep and bear arms, by Congress or citizens in a federal territory [3] and prohibits the federal government from depriving any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. In federal criminal cases, it requires indictment by grand jury for any capital or "infamous crime", guarantees a speedy public trial with an impartial jury composed of members of the state or judicial district in which the crime occurred, and prohibits double jeopardy. In addition, the Bill of Rights states that "the enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people,"[4] and reserves all powers not granted to the federal government to the citizenry or States. Most of these restrictions were later applied to the states by a series of decisions applying the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which was ratified in 1868, after the American Civil War.
Madison proposed the Bill of Rights while ideological conflict between Federalists and anti-Federalists, dating from the 1787 Philadelphia Convention, threatened the overall ratification of the new national Constitution. It largely responded to the Constitution's influential opponents, including prominent Founding Fathers, who argued that the Constitution should not be ratified because it failed to protect the basic principles of human liberty. The Bill was influenced by George Mason's 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights, the 1689 English Bill of Rights, works of the Age of Enlightenment pertaining to natural rights, and earlier English political documents such as Magna Carta (1215).
Two additional articles were proposed to the States; only the final ten articles were ratified quickly and correspond to the First through Tenth Amendments to the Constitution. The first Article, dealing with the number and apportionment of U.S. Representatives, never became part of the Constitution. The second Article, limiting the ability of Congress to increase the salaries of its members, was ratified two centuries later as the 27th Amendment. Though they are incorporated into the document known as the "Bill of Rights", neither article establishes a right as that term is used today. For that reason, and also because the term had been applied to the first ten amendments long before the 27th Amendment was ratified, the term "Bill of Rights" in modern U.S. usage means only the ten amendments ratified in 1791.
The Bill of Rights plays a central role in American law and government, and remains a fundamental symbol of the freedoms and culture of the nation. One of the original fourteen copies of the Bill of Rights is on public display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
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The Bill of Rights prohibits Congress from making any law respecting an establishment of religion, forbids infringement of the right to keep and bear arms, by Congress or citizens in a federal territory [3] and prohibits the federal government from depriving any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. In federal criminal cases, it requires indictment by grand jury for any capital or "infamous crime", guarantees a speedy public trial with an impartial jury composed of members of the state or judicial district in which the crime occurred, and prohibits double jeopardy. In addition, the Bill of Rights states that "the enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people,"[4] and reserves all powers not granted to the federal government to the citizenry or States. Most of these restrictions were later applied to the states by a series of decisions applying the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which was ratified in 1868, after the American Civil War.
Madison proposed the Bill of Rights while ideological conflict between Federalists and anti-Federalists, dating from the 1787 Philadelphia Convention, threatened the overall ratification of the new national Constitution. It largely responded to the Constitution's influential opponents, including prominent Founding Fathers, who argued that the Constitution should not be ratified because it failed to protect the basic principles of human liberty. The Bill was influenced by George Mason's 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights, the 1689 English Bill of Rights, works of the Age of Enlightenment pertaining to natural rights, and earlier English political documents such as Magna Carta (1215).
Two additional articles were proposed to the States; only the final ten articles were ratified quickly and correspond to the First through Tenth Amendments to the Constitution. The first Article, dealing with the number and apportionment of U.S. Representatives, never became part of the Constitution. The second Article, limiting the ability of Congress to increase the salaries of its members, was ratified two centuries later as the 27th Amendment. Though they are incorporated into the document known as the "Bill of Rights", neither article establishes a right as that term is used today. For that reason, and also because the term had been applied to the first ten amendments long before the 27th Amendment was ratified, the term "Bill of Rights" in modern U.S. usage means only the ten amendments ratified in 1791.
The Bill of Rights plays a central role in American law and government, and remains a fundamental symbol of the freedoms and culture of the nation. One of the original fourteen copies of the Bill of Rights is on public display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
Без заголовка
24-03-2009 02:11
Канада (англ. Canada [‘kжnd], фр. Canada [kana‘da]) — государство в Северной Америке, занимает второе место в мире по площади (после России). Омывается Атлантическим, Тихим и Северным Ледовитым океанами и граничит с США на юге и на северо-западе.
Сегодня Канада — это конституционная монархия с парламентарной системой, являющаяся двуязычной и многокультурной страной, где английский и французский языки признаны официальными на федеральном уровне. Технологически продвинутое и промышленно развитое государство, Канада имеет многоотраслевую экономику, базирующуюся на богатых природных ресурсах и торговле (в частности, с США, с которыми Канада комплексно сотрудничает со времён существования колоний и основания Конфедерации).
Основанная французским исследователем Жаком Картье в 1534, Канада берёт своё начало от французской колонии на месте современного города Квебек, населенном первоначально местными народами. После периода английской колонизации из союза трёх британских колоний (которые были до этого территориями Новой Франции) родилась канадская конфедерация. Сегодня Канада — это федеративное государство, состоящее из 10 провинций и 3 территорий, получившее независимость от Соединённого Королевства в результате мирного процесса с 1867 по 1982.
Канада в настоящее время состоит из одной провинции с преобладающим франкоговорящим населением — Квебек — и 9 преимущественно англоязычных провинций, также называемых «английская Канада» в сравнении с франкоязычным Квебеком. Будучи одной из девяти преимущественно англоязычных провинций, Нью-Брансуик является единственной официально двуязычной канадской провинцией. Территория Юкон официально двуязычна (английский и французский), а Северо-Западные территории и территория Нунавут признают 11 официальных языков (среди которых также присутствуют английский и французский).
Содержание
[убрать]
* 1 Происхождение названия
* 2 История
o 2.1 Новая Франция
o 2.2 Французский период: союзы, битвы и Семилетняя война
o 2.3 Английский период: Верхняя и Нижняя Канада
o 2.4 Соединённая Канада
o 2.5 Канадская конфедерация
o 2.6 Автономная Канада
o 2.7 Квебекское сепаратистское движение
o 2.8 Канадское своеобразие
* 3 Государственная структура и политические партии
o 3.1 Государственный режим
o 3.2 Присяги, выборы и назначения
o 3.3 Деятельность Парламента
o 3.4 Деятельность федерации
* 4 Право
o 4.1 Суды
o 4.2 Действующее право
* 5 Внешняя политика
o 5.1 Торговые отношения
o 5.2 Международное сотрудничество и развитие
o 5.3 Вооружённые конфликты, миротворческие миссии и спасательные операции
* 6 Административное деление
o 6.1 Провинции (с запада на восток)
o 6.2 Территории (с запада на восток)
* 7 Географические данные
* 8 Экономика
* 9 Федеральная политика двуязычия (билингвизм) и языки Канады
* 10 Демография
o 10.1 Население и иммиграция
o 10.2 Религия
o 10.3 Образование
* 11 Культура
o 11.1 Канадский мультикультурализм
o 11.2 Организации
o 11.3 Вклад Канады в популярную культуру
o 11.4 Вклад Канады в андергаунд-культуру
* 12 Спорт
* 13 Символы Канады
* 14 Интересные факты
* 15 Международный рейтинг
* 16 Примечания
* 17 См. также
* 18 Ссылки
[править] Происхождение названия
Название Канада происходит от слова, означающего «деревня» или «поселение» на лаврентийском языке, на котором в начале XVI века говорили лаврентийские ирокезы, которые зимовали в деревне Стадаконе (в окрестностях современного Квебека), — первые американские индейцы, которых Жак Картье встретил на Гаспе летом 1534 в их летнем лагере. В 1535 жители местности, где ныне располагается город Квебек, использовали это слово, чтобы направить исследователя Жака Картье в деревню Стадаконе. Вскоре после экспедиции Картье лаврентийское племя бесследно исчезло — как показали современные археологические раскопки, скорее всего, в результате войн с гуронами и южными ирокезами.
Картье использовал слово «Канада», чтобы обозначать не только эту деревню, но и целую область, включавшую также деревню Ошлага. Сегодня историки сходятся на том, что «страна Канада» первоначально обозначала современные окрестности Квебека. К 1545 европейские книги и карты обозначали этот регион и все берега реки Св. Лаврентия, заселявшиеся французами, словом «Канада». Впоследствии это название перешло и на большинство соседних территорий в Северной Америке, управлявшихся Британской империей.
[править] История
Основные статьи: История Канады, Конституционная история Канады, Военная история Канады
Панорама Монреаля, Канада
В течение тысячелетий территория Канады была заселена индейскими и инуитскими племенами. Считается, что первыми европейцами, ступившими на канадскую землю (остров Ньюфаундленд) около 1000 г. н. э., былиЧитать далее...
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Канада (англ. Canada [‘kжnd], фр. Canada [kana‘da]) — государство в Северной Америке, занимает второе место в мире по площади (после России). Омывается Атлантическим, Тихим и Северным Ледовитым океанами и граничит с США на юге и на северо-западе.
Сегодня Канада — это конституционная монархия с парламентарной системой, являющаяся двуязычной и многокультурной страной, где английский и французский языки признаны официальными на федеральном уровне. Технологически продвинутое и промышленно развитое государство, Канада имеет многоотраслевую экономику, базирующуюся на богатых природных ресурсах и торговле (в частности, с США, с которыми Канада комплексно сотрудничает со времён существования колоний и основания Конфедерации).
Основанная французским исследователем Жаком Картье в 1534, Канада берёт своё начало от французской колонии на месте современного города Квебек, населенном первоначально местными народами. После периода английской колонизации из союза трёх британских колоний (которые были до этого территориями Новой Франции) родилась канадская конфедерация. Сегодня Канада — это федеративное государство, состоящее из 10 провинций и 3 территорий, получившее независимость от Соединённого Королевства в результате мирного процесса с 1867 по 1982.
Канада в настоящее время состоит из одной провинции с преобладающим франкоговорящим населением — Квебек — и 9 преимущественно англоязычных провинций, также называемых «английская Канада» в сравнении с франкоязычным Квебеком. Будучи одной из девяти преимущественно англоязычных провинций, Нью-Брансуик является единственной официально двуязычной канадской провинцией. Территория Юкон официально двуязычна (английский и французский), а Северо-Западные территории и территория Нунавут признают 11 официальных языков (среди которых также присутствуют английский и французский).
Содержание
[убрать]
* 1 Происхождение названия
* 2 История
o 2.1 Новая Франция
o 2.2 Французский период: союзы, битвы и Семилетняя война
o 2.3 Английский период: Верхняя и Нижняя Канада
o 2.4 Соединённая Канада
o 2.5 Канадская конфедерация
o 2.6 Автономная Канада
o 2.7 Квебекское сепаратистское движение
o 2.8 Канадское своеобразие
* 3 Государственная структура и политические партии
o 3.1 Государственный режим
o 3.2 Присяги, выборы и назначения
o 3.3 Деятельность Парламента
o 3.4 Деятельность федерации
* 4 Право
o 4.1 Суды
o 4.2 Действующее право
* 5 Внешняя политика
o 5.1 Торговые отношения
o 5.2 Международное сотрудничество и развитие
o 5.3 Вооружённые конфликты, миротворческие миссии и спасательные операции
* 6 Административное деление
o 6.1 Провинции (с запада на восток)
o 6.2 Территории (с запада на восток)
* 7 Географические данные
* 8 Экономика
* 9 Федеральная политика двуязычия (билингвизм) и языки Канады
* 10 Демография
o 10.1 Население и иммиграция
o 10.2 Религия
o 10.3 Образование
* 11 Культура
o 11.1 Канадский мультикультурализм
o 11.2 Организации
o 11.3 Вклад Канады в популярную культуру
o 11.4 Вклад Канады в андергаунд-культуру
* 12 Спорт
* 13 Символы Канады
* 14 Интересные факты
* 15 Международный рейтинг
* 16 Примечания
* 17 См. также
* 18 Ссылки
[править] Происхождение названия
Название Канада происходит от слова, означающего «деревня» или «поселение» на лаврентийском языке, на котором в начале XVI века говорили лаврентийские ирокезы, которые зимовали в деревне Стадаконе (в окрестностях современного Квебека), — первые американские индейцы, которых Жак Картье встретил на Гаспе летом 1534 в их летнем лагере. В 1535 жители местности, где ныне располагается город Квебек, использовали это слово, чтобы направить исследователя Жака Картье в деревню Стадаконе. Вскоре после экспедиции Картье лаврентийское племя бесследно исчезло — как показали современные археологические раскопки, скорее всего, в результате войн с гуронами и южными ирокезами.
Картье использовал слово «Канада», чтобы обозначать не только эту деревню, но и целую область, включавшую также деревню Ошлага. Сегодня историки сходятся на том, что «страна Канада» первоначально обозначала современные окрестности Квебека. К 1545 европейские книги и карты обозначали этот регион и все берега реки Св. Лаврентия, заселявшиеся французами, словом «Канада». Впоследствии это название перешло и на большинство соседних территорий в Северной Америке, управлявшихся Британской империей.
[править] История
Основные статьи: История Канады, Конституционная история Канады, Военная история Канады
Панорама Монреаля, Канада
В течение тысячелетий территория Канады была заселена индейскими и инуитскими племенами. Считается, что первыми европейцами, ступившими на канадскую землю (остров Ньюфаундленд) около 1000 г. н. э., были
билет 15
27-01-2009 22:36
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http://www.ido.rudn.ru/ffec/philos/chrest\yasper.html
билет 23
27-01-2009 18:47
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В культурологии существует довольно сильное течение, противопоставляющее культуру цивилизации. Начало такому противопоставлению положили русские славянофилы, утверждая тезис о духовности культуры и бездуховности цивилизации как чисто западного явления. Продолжая эти традиции, Н.А. Бердяев писал о цивилизации как «смерти духа культуры». В рамках его концепции культура — символична, но не реалистична, между тем динамическое движение внутри культуры с ее кристаллизованными формами неотвратимо влечет к выходу за пределы культуры, «к жизни, к практике, к силе». На этих путях «совершается переход культуры к цивилизации», «цивилизация пытается осуществить жизнь», реализуя «культ жизни вне ее смысла, подменяя цель жизни средствами жизни, орудиями жизни».
В западной культурологии последовательное противопоставление культуры и цивилизации осуществил О. Шпенглер. В своей книге «Закат Европы» (1918) он описал цивилизацию как конечный момент в развитии культуры, означающий ее «закат» или упадок. Шпенглер считал главными чертами цивилизации «острую холодную рассудочность», интеллектуальный голод, практический рационализм, смену душевного бытия умственным, преклонение перед деньгами, развитие науки, безрелигиозность и тому подобные явления.
Однако в культурологии имеется и противоположный подход, по сути дела отождествляющий культуру и цивилизацию. В концепции К. Ясперса цивилизация интерпретируется как ценность всех культур. Культура составляет стержень цивилизации, но при таком подходе нерешенным остается вопрос о специфике культуры и цивилизации. С нашей точки зрения, проблема отношения понятий «культуры» и «цивилизации» может найти приемлемое решение, если понимать цивилизацию как некий продукт культуры, ее специфическое свойство и составляющую: цивилизация — это создаваемая обществом в ходе культурного процесса система средств его функционирования и совершенствования.
Понятие цивилизации при такой трактовке указывает на функциональность, технологичность, институциональность. Понятие культуры — не только на технологии, но и на ценности и смыслы, она связана с постановкой и реализацией человеческих целей. Цивилизация предполагает усвоенность образцов поведения, ценностей, норм и т. д., культура же — способ освоения достижений. Цивилизация есть реализация определенного типа общества в конкретных исторических обстоятельствах, культура же — отношение к этому типу общества на основе различных духовно-нравственных и мировоззренческих критериев.